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GIFT  OF 


THE    NEW    TESTAMENT    PERIOD 
AND   ITS   LEADERS 


HOW    CHRISTIANITY    WAS    PREPARED    FOR, 

INAUGURATED,  EMANCIPATED 
FROM  JUDAISM,  AND   BECAME  UNIVERSAL 


BY 

FRANK   T.  LEE,  D.D. 

Author  of  "  Popular  Misconceptions  as  to 
Christian  Faith  and  Life,"  "Bible 
Study  Popularized,"  * 'Side- 
lights on  the  Bible,"  etc. 


BOSTON 

SHERMAN,  FRENCH  ^  COMPANY 

1913 


s^E^ 


K^° 


«'\K 


^.^^ 


Copyright,  1913 
Shermax;  French  ^  Company 


TO 

MY  WIFE 


£^  jn%.  M   Jk   ir%\ 


FOREWORD 

The  casual  reader  of  the  New  Testament,  or 
even  the  superficial  student  of  it,  little  realizes 
the  tremendous  obstacles  which  Christianity  was 
obliged  to  overcome  before  it  could  gain  a  per- 
manent foothold  in  the  world  and  enter  upon  its 
mission  as  a  universal  religion.  A  study  of  its 
inception  and  of  the  successive  stages  of  its  prog- 
ress— both  in  its  mighty  struggle  to  free  itself 
from  its  Judaic  envelopment  and  in  territorial 
expansion — during  the  New  Testament  period, 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest  and  profit  to  any- 
one who  is  interested  in  Christianity  at  all. 

In  the  following  pages,  both  the  movement  it- 
self of  Christianity,  and  its  early  leaders  have 
come  under  review.  In  Part  I  the  providential 
preparation  for  it  among  the  Jewish  people  and 
in  the  world  at  large,  together  with  its  actual  in- 
auguration, is  set  forth.  In  Part  II,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  series  of  character  studies  of  its  first 
leaders,  the  gradual  development  of  Christianity 
as  it  outgrew  and  thrust  aside  its  Jewish  swad- 
dling clothes  and  made  its  way  among  the  Gen- 
tiles, is  traced.  The  contribution  which  each  of 
these  leaders  made  toward  this  development,  is, 
so  far  as  possible,  pointed  out. 

Within     the    limits    proposed,    an    exhaustive 


FOREWORD 

treatment  of  the  subject  has  been  impossible. 
The  aim  has  been  to  afford  to  the  general  reader 
and  student  a  clear  idea  of  the  New  Testament 
movement  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  character  and 
work  of  its  main  promoters  during  that  period. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

^,r»«^x,»    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD         „,„„ 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     Introduction 1 

II     The     Providential     Preparation     op 

THE  World  for  Christ     ....       5 

III  The   Historical,   Political  and   Reli- 

gious Background  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament     34 

IV  The  Forerunner 56 

V  Christianity  Inaugurated    ....     77 

PART  II 

THE  LEADERS 

I  Introductory         133 

II  Peter 142 

III  John 176 

IV  Stephen 203 

V  Philip  the  Evangelist 221 

VI  Barnabas 234 

VII     Paul 247 

VIII     Other   Leaders 296 

IX     Emancipated  Christianity,  Universal, 

Final 342 


PART  I 
THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Considering  its  nature,  the  manner  of  its  in- 
troduction into  the  world,  its  morally  transform- 
ing power,  its  expansion  through  the  centuries,  its 
influence  in  promoting  the  highest  civilization, 
and  its  promise  for  the  future, — the  greatest 
world-movement  ever  inaugurated  in  human  his- 
tory was  Christianity.  It  was  long  foreshadowed 
and  with  growing  distinctness  in  the  particular 
race  through  which  at  length  it  came,  and  in 
which,  as  also  among  mankind  at  large,  there 
had  been  some  measure  of  providential  prepara- 
tion. The  real  roots  of  it  are  to  be  found  in 
the  religious  ideas  and  institutions  of  the  Jewish 
people.  These  formed  a  soil  out  of  which  Chris- 
tianity may  be  said  to  have  sprung,  and  in  which 
it  could  for  a  time  develop.  Finally,  by  a  hard 
struggle,  in  which  Paul  was  the  central  figure,  it 
outgrew,  passed  beyond,  separated  itself  from 
these  ideas  and  institutions,  until,  free  and  un- 
trammeled,  it  stood  forth  as  the  one  absolute  and 
universal  religion.  There  had  been  other  reli- 
gious movements,  so-called,  pagan  though  they 
were,  outside  of  Palestine,  each  one  of  which, 
along  with  more  or  less  of  superstition,  false 
teaching,  or  idolatrous  practice,  or  all  combined, 


^       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

embodied  something  of  truth  within  itself.  But 
this  new  movement,  freed  from  their  errors  and 
incumbrances,  gathered  up  and  included  whatever 
of  permanent  value  these  other  religions  con- 
tained, added  vastly  more,  and  at  the  same  time 
left  room  for  its  future  development  from  within, 
and  for  the  reception  of  any  possible  revelations 
from  without.  Its  object  was  nothing  short  of 
the  ultimate  moral  revolution  of  the  life  of  the 
world  in  all  its  relations. 

As  was  contemplated  in  all  the  foreshadowings 
of  it,  this  movement  was  definitely  launched  in  the 
"fullness  of  time," — i.  e.,  when  the  world  was 
ripe  for  it,  or  when  the  conditions  were  most 
favorable  for  its  reception  and  success.  The  One 
by  whom  it  was  inaugurated  claimed  to  be,  and 
gave  every  evidence  of  being,  the  divine-human 
Son  of  the  Most  High.  For  the  time  being  he 
dwelt  in  the  midst  of  human  conditions,  and  was 
not  altogether  freed  from  human  limitations. 
His  plan  was  to  establish  a  kingdom — not  like 
the  material  and  tangible  kingdoms  of  the  world, 
but  a  spiritual  kingdom  rather,  of  which  he 
should  himself  be  the  head,  and  whose  seat  should 
be  in  the  hearts  of  men.  It  was  to  be  made  up  of 
those  who  were  prepared  to  share  in  its  nature 
which  was  righteousness,  in  its  purpose  which 
was  human  redemption,  and  in  its  spirit  which 
was  love  and  good  will  toward  God  and  men.  It 
was  to  continue  through  time  not  only,  but  as 
well  through  all  eternity. 


INTRODUCTION  S 

During  the  brief  period  in  which  the  Founder 
of  this  kingdom — Jesus  as  he  was  called — re- 
mained upon  earth,  he  addressed  himself  to  the 
task  of  gathering  together  a  number  of  persons 
who  should  constitute  a  nucleus  for  it,  and  of 
training  a  selected  few  to  carry  it  on  after  his 
withdrawal  from  them.  His  efforts  were  neces- 
sarily circumscribed,  both  from  the  fact  of  his 
self-imposed  limitations,  and  the  almost  insuper- 
able obstacles,  growing  out  of  his  environment,  by 
which  he  was  confronted.  Preeminent  among  the 
latter  were  the  sinfulness  and  opposition  of 
wicked  men,  to  which  he  himself  at  last  fell  a 
victim.  In  spite  of  all,  however,  he  accomplished 
the  task  he  had  set  for  himself  to  perform  and  for 
which  he  had  been  sent  into  the  world.  He 
planted,  as  it  were,  a  seed  in  the  soil  of  the  human 
heart  and  life  which  would  germinate  and  grow 
and  communicate  itself  to  others.  It  had  not 
been  his  purpose  to  complete,  but  only  to  begin 
the  movement,  which  would  be  world-wide  in  its 
scope  and  ultimately  cover  the  earth. 

Though  put  to  death  by  his  enemies,  Jesus 
rose  from  the  grave  triumphant,  appeared  to  his 
disciples  from  time  to  time  for  a  number  of  weeks, 
then  ascended  to  heaven,  where,  clothed  with  all 
authority  and  power,  and  as  the  invisible  yet  liv- 
ing Head  of  his  earthly  kingdom,  he  has  con- 
tinued ever  since  to  administer  it.  The  responsi- 
bility for  carrying  this  movement  forward  in  the 
world   after   him,   was,   humanly    speaking,   com- 


4       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

mitted  to  the  men  whom  he  had  chosen  and  trained 
for  that  purpose.  Their  preparation  for  their 
mission  was  completed  by  the  impartation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whom,  according  to  his  promise, 
Jesus  sent  upon  them  after  he  had  ascended.  As 
their  Master  had  been,  so  these  men  were  con- 
fronted with  innumerable  obstacles,  which  would 
effectually  have  checked  and  crushed  any  move- 
ment which  was  not  possessed  of  a  more  than  hu- 
man vitality.  These  obstacles,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, sprung  from  the  hostility  and  prejudice, 
the  bigotry  and  pride  of  the  Jewish  race.  Yet 
notwithstanding  all  the  obstructions  which  were 
placed  in  its  way,  the  Christian  movement  finally 
broke  through  the  barricade  of  Jewish  exclusive- 
ness,  pushed  its  way  among  the  nations  round 
about,  until,  at  the  close  of  the  New  Testament 
period,  it  had  gained  wide  recognition  as  the  one 
supreme  and  universal  religion. 

Since  then  it  has  been  steadily  making  its  way 
through  the  centuries,  gaining  victory  after  vic- 
tory over  hindrances  to  its  progress — whether 
from  oppositions  without  or  corruptions  within 
— gradually  increasing  in  momentum  and  power, 
until  now,  in  its  entirety,  made  up  of  many  com- 
ponent parts,  it  has  become  the  mightiest  moral 
force  in  all  the  earth,  and  promises,  in  its  ulti- 
mate triumph,  to  bring  all  mankind  under  its  in- 
fluence. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PROVIDENTIAL  PREPARATION   OF 
THE  WORLD  FOR  CHRIST 

If  there  was  ever  reason  for  a  providential 
preparation  for  any  movement  or  event  in  human 
history,  it  would  clearly  seem,  in  view  of  the 
tremendous  interests  involved  for  all  the  future, 
as  if  there  must  have  been  with  reference  to  the 
advent  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  fact,  the  attention  of 
the  most  thoughtful  students  of  ancient  history 
has  long  been  arrested  by  a  manifest  purpose  in 
it ;  that  this  purpose  has  had  to  do  with  the  prep- 
aration of  the  world  for  this  supreme  end;  and 
that  never  had  there  been  such  a  combination  of 
faToring  conditions  for  it  as  at  that  particular 
juncture.  The  development  of  these  various  con- 
ditions, each  in  its  own  way,  had  been  going 
steadily  forward  for  a  long  period.  At  this  time 
they  had  attained  their  climax,  had  converged  at 
the  Christian  Era,  and  had  formed  the  combina- 
tion referred  to  above.  If  any  would  attribute 
this  to  mere  coincidence  or  chance,  insist  that 
everything  simply  "happened,"  it  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  coincidences  or  chance  combi- 
nations in  human  history.  The  marvel  is,  not 
5 


6       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

only  that  there  should  have  been  such  a  remark- 
able combination,  but  that  everything  should  have 
occurred  at  the  precise  time  at  which  it  did.  A 
generation  or  so  earlier  or  later  would  have  pre- 
sented an  entirely  different  situation.  Prior  to 
this  time  the  preparation  would  have  been  incom- 
plete, later  the  time  would  have  been  past. 
Christ  came  not  a  moment  too  soon  or  a  moment 
too  late.  It  was  in  the  fullness  of  time  that  he 
appeared. 

Far  more  rational,  satisfactory  and  easy  to 
accept  is  the  view,  long  held  and  never  with 
stronger  conviction  than  at  present,  that  there 
is  an  intelligent  purpose  back  of  all  history:  that 
God,  by  his  over-ruling  providence,  and  for  the 
high  ends  he  has  in  view,  has  had  a  hand  in  the 
shaping  of  events ;  that  there  was  a  remarkable 
converging  of  favoring  conditions  for  this  par- 
ticular event;  and  that  these  ends  involved  the 
giving  to  the  world  the  gospel  of  his  love,  with 
all  the  marvelous  present  and  future  blessings 
which  are  wrapped  up  in  it  for  mankind. 

This  would  seem  satisfactorily  to  account  for 
the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  inauguration  of  the 
Christian  movement  when  providential  conditions, 
long  developing,  were  at  length  fully  ripe  for  it. 
His  coming  as  he  did,  and  his  active  entrance  upon 
his  work  when  all  things  were  ready,  was  no  mere 
accidental  coincidence.  No  such  explanation  is 
at  all  adequate.  God  does  not  work  by  chance 
but  by  an  eternal  plan. 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  7 

We  may  notice  some  of  the  favoring  conditions 
which,  entirely  apart  from  the  question  of  their 
providential  character,  actually  existed  and 
reached  their  climax  at  a  time  when  Christ  was 
born  and  the  Christian  religion  was  introduced 
into  the  world. 

THE  DIVINE  PLAN 

In  the  light  of  subsequent  events  —  which  is 
our  only  means  of  judging — it  was  manifestly 
not  the  plan  of  God,  in  giving  the  perfect  and 
final  religion,  long  foreshadowed,  to  mankind, 
either  that  it  should  take  on  the  form  of  an 
entirely  new  movement,  or  that  it  should  be  pre- 
sented in  its  complete  development  to  a  race  of 
people  entirely  unfitted  to  receive  it.  Rather  it 
was  to  delay  it  until,  after  a  long  preparatory 
process,  a  particular  race,  chosen  by  reason  of  a 
certain  adaptedness  for  the  purpose,  should  at 
length,  by  the  vicissitudes  and  discipline  of  a  long 
experience,  be  fitted  to  receive,  to  appreciate, 
and  to  propagate  the  new  faith.  Not  that  there 
has  not  been  a  certain  preparatory  element  in  the 
history  of  every  nation  for  the  ultimate  coming  to 
it  of  Christ  and  his  religion,  but  that  throughout 
the  history  of  this  particular  people  there  was  a 
special  preparation  for  this  great  event.  Then, 
too,  instead  of  involving  a  distinctly  new  move- 
ment, the  coming  religion  was  to  be  closely  re- 
lated to,  have  its  roots  in,  the  past  of  this  people, 
really  to  be  the  outgrowth  of  an  antecedent  or 


8       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOl) 

rudimentary  religion.  It  was,  in  fact,  to  be  the 
culmination  of  a  long  line  of  religious  history  in 
this  race,  during  which  a  progressive  revelation  of 
God  should  lead  up  to,  be  merged  in  and  swal- 
lowed up  by,  a  new,  larger,  and  final  revelation. 
As  related  to  that  which  had  preceded,  this  would 
be  as  the  full  light  of  day  in  comparison  with  the 
faint  light  of  early  dawn. 

To  this  gradually  increasing  revelation,  as  re- 
corded in  the  Old  Testament,  this  new  movement 
could  attach  itself  and  advance  to  its  own  com- 
plete unfolding.  In  the  earlier  stages  or  the 
childhood  of  this  race,  a  partial  or  fragmentary 
revelation  was  all  that  could  be  appreciated.  Yet 
even  in  this,  something  more  complete  to  come 
was  foreshadowed.  That  which  existed  but  in 
germ  before  could  now  unfold  and  develop.  Here 
was  a  soil  favorable  to  its  nourishment  and 
growth  until  it  should  come  to  its  full  fruitage. 
In  this  way  the  rudimentary  religion,  the  Mosaic 
law,  would  not  be  destroyed,  but  fulfilled,  i.  e., 
filled  out,  carried  on  to  completion.  Then,  sepa- 
rating itself  from  everything  local,  temporary,  or 
provincial  in  the  old,  this  new  religion  would  at 
last  stand  forth  in  its  universal  aspects,  adapted, 
as  was  originally  intended,  not  for  a  single  people 
alone,  but  for  all  mankind,  regardless  of  race, 
color,  or  genealogical  descent. 

Such  in  general  seems  to  have  been  the  far- 
reaching  plan  of  God  with  reference  to  giving  the 
full  revelation  of  himself  and  the  gospel  of  his 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  9 

love  to  the  human  race  for  its  redemption.  More 
specifically,  it  was  to  send  into  the  world  at 
length  on  this  mission,  among  this  particular  peo- 
ple, his  "only  begotten  Son"  who  should  embody 
this  revelation,  this  religion,  this  gospel,  in  his 
own  person.  He  was  to  come  in  human  form, 
through  human  birth,  and  with  human  sympathies, 
dwell  in  the  midst  of  human  conditions,  subject 
himself  in  a  degree  to  human  limitations,  until  his 
work  of  inaugurating  this  new  movement  should 
be  accomplished.  In  this  way,  not  only  would 
God's  revelation  of  himself  to  men  reach  its  cli- 
max, but  the  long-cherished  expectations  of  the 
chosen  race,  as  foreshadowed  by  its  prophets,  be 
in  their  true  sense  realized. 

For  this  event,  so  momentous,  and  destined  to 
exert  so  far-reaching  an  influence  upon  subsequent 
ages,  there  was,  as  might  naturally  have  been 
expected  and  as  has  long  been  recognized,  what 
may  be  termed  a  providential  preparation.  This 
pertained  not  only  to  the  particular  race  through 
which  Christ  came,  in  its  religion,  its  institutions, 
and  its  history,  but  also  to  the  political  and  other 
conditions  existing  in  the  world  at  large.  As  a 
matter  of  history,  three  peoples  in  particular 
shared  in  this  preparation,  the  Hebrew,  the  Greek, 
and  the  Roman.  Each  of  them  had  an  important 
part,  made  a  definite  contribution — religious,  in- 
tellectual, or  political — towards  making  the  world 
ready  for  the  advent. 


10      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

THE  HEBREW  RACE 

First,  as  to  the  Hebrew  race,  the  Jemish  people. 
Their  contribution  to  this  preparation  was  espe- 
cially large,  the  most  important,  in  fact,  of  all. 
Through  them  the  Messiah  was  to  come;  his 
gospel  was  to  be  the  ripened  fruitage  of  their 
religion ;  they  were  to  be  the  agents,  primarily, 
of  the  world-wide  dissemination  of  his  message  of 
salvation. 

(1)  There  are  many  interesting  facts  pertain- 
ing to  the  land  which  became  the  abode  of  this 
people,  and  which  had  no  small  influence  in  pre- 
paring them  for  their  mission,  which  had  been 
foreshadowed  at  the  call  of  Abraham;  which  had 
been  kept  before  them  with  more  or  less  clearness 
through  their  history;  which  was  especially  em- 
phasized in  the  "servant"  passages  of  the  book 
of  Isaiah.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  large  part  of 
their  providential  training.  It  afforded  the  se- 
clusion necessary  to  preserve  their  identity  and 
to  shield  them  from  the  moral  corruption  of  the 
great  empires  of  the  time,  and  furnish  them  at 
length  with  a  center  for  the  easy  dissemination  of 
the  new  religion  and  its  hopes.  The  physical 
features  of  the  land  were  particularly  favorable 
to  this  end.  It  was  not  easily  invaded,  yet  it  was 
close  to  the  great  highways  of  travel,  over  which, 
from  the  earliest  times,  great  tides  of  humanity 
had  passed.  Situated  as  it  was  at  the  junction  of 
three  continents,  its  position  was  pivotal  among 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST         11 

the  nations  of  the  East.  Moreover,  owing  to  its 
varied  character,  made  up  of  highlands  and  low- 
lands, valleys  and  plains,  and  with  a  climate  cor- 
respondingly diversified,  everything  essential  to 
the  well  being  of  the  people  could  be  produced. 

That  a  land  the  most  favorable  of  all  for  the 
purpose  in  view  should  have  become  the  home  of 
this  people,  would  seem  to  be  a  strange  coin- 
cidence, if  that  were  all. 

Then  as  to  the  people  themselves,  various 
things  may  be  said.  The  choice  of  them  for  their 
high  mission  was  not,  as  is  too  commonly  sup- 
posed, an  arbitrary  one.  They  were  selected  in 
view  of  certain  qualities  which  they  had  possessed 
and  certain  advantages  which  they  had  enjoyed, 
which  peculiarly  fitted  them  for  the  high  function 
which  was  to  be  theirs.  Their  persistent  physical 
and  intellectual  vigor  has  frequently  been  noted. 
No  race  has  so  preserved  its  distinctive  character 
through  hundreds,  even  thousands  of  years. 
Deeply  reverent  and  religious  in  temperament,  the 
Jews  were  peculiarly  adapted  to  be  the  agents 
for  the  custody  and  transmission  of  religious 
truth.  Their  language,  too,  had  exceptional  ele- 
ments of  fitness  for  its  purpose.  Its  range  of 
expression  went  far  beyond  most  others  of  its 
time.  Especially  was  it  capable  of  conveying  ab- 
stract truth.  So  that,  considering  all  things,  the 
strong  religious  and  ethical  element  in  the  nation, 
the  flexible  character  of  its  language,  and  the 
purity  and  persistence  of  the  race,  the  selection 


la      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

of  this  people  for  the  high  end  in  view  is  more 
than  justified. 

There  was  also  the  peculiar  schooling  or  his- 
tory of  this  people.  Whether  or  not  there  was 
an  intended  purpose  in  all  this,  it  could  hardly 
have  been  more  effective.  Doubtless  all  the  na- 
tions with  which  they  were  associated  had  a  share 
in  preparing  the  way  of  the  Lord — there  was 
more  of  divine  influence  at  work  to  this  end  than 
appears  in  purely  Jewish  history — ^but  we  are 
specially  concerned  with  this  people.  We  may 
trace  what  seems  clearly  to  have  been  a  guiding 
providential  purpose  all  through  their  history. 
Each  stage  of  it  had  a  significance  of  its  own. 
When  the  little  clan  in  Canaan  was  in  danger  of 
being  swallowed  up  by  the  corrupting  heathenish 
population  about  them,  they  were  led  into  Egypt, 
there,  for  a  period,  to  be  under  the  sheltering  care 
of  a  great  power.  Here,  still  in  seclusion,  in  a 
land  set  apart  for  them, — for  they  had  no  so- 
cial relations  with  the  Egyptians,  who  hated  them, 
— they  could  multiply  and  develop,  undisturbed 
and  uncontaminated.  Moreover,  the  time  of 
their  going  to  Egypt  was  peculiarly  favorable, 
for  the  H^^ksos,  a  kindred  race,  were  in  control 
of  the  land.  When  at  length,  after  a  long  period, 
the  Egyptians  themselves  regained  control  and 
the  Hyksos  were  driven  out,  the  changed  condi- 
tions, which  resulted  in  the  severe  and  protracted 
oppression  of  the  Hebrews,  tended  to  wean  them 
from  the  land  in  which  otherwise  they  might  have 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST         13 

been  contented  to  remain.  Now  they  were  ready 
and  anxious,  when  a  leader  was  raised  up,  himself 
providentially  prepared  for  his  great  task,  to  go 
forth  and  seek  the  country  to  which  they  ha4 
long  looked  forward  as  one  which  was  ultimately 
to  be  theirs.  Unfitted  at  once  to  enter  in  and 
possess  it,  they  were  subjected  to  the  discipline 
of  the  wilderness,  as  a  result  of  which  they  be- 
came organized,  received  the  moral  law,  were  led 
to  enter  into  special  covenant  with  God,  to  es- 
tablish suitable  religious  institutions,  and  to 
cherish  a  more  intelligent  faith.  The  retirement 
of  the  wilderness  was  precisely  what  was  needed 
to  prepare  them  for  the  responsibilities  of  the 
land  of  promise. 

Even  in  the  matter  of  entering  into  and  pos- 
sessing this  land,  the  way  had  been  prepared 
before  them.  The  Egyptian  monarchy  had  so  de- 
clined in  power  and  was  so  disturbed  by  inter- 
nal dissensions,  as  to  be  unable  to  molest  them  or 
hinder  their  conquest,  as  at  an  earlier  time  it 
most  likely  would  have  done.  Then,  the  condi- 
tions which  had  come  to  prevail  in  the  land  itself 
were  such  at  this  time  as  to  render  its  subjuga- 
tion less  difficult  than  it  might  othenvise  have 
been.  The  tribes  had  become  small  and  were  for 
the  most  part  lacking  in  unity  of  action. 

So  at  length  the  chosen  people  are  established 
in  their  own  land,  and  now  for  some  centuries  and 
through  the  vicissitudes  of  a  varied  experience — 
whether  as  an  independent  people,  or  as  vassals 


i4j    the  new  testament  period 

of  a  great  empire,  or  as  captives  in  foreign  lands 
— they  are  brought  to  clearer  and  better  concep- 
tions of  God,  of  religion,  of  moral  and  spiritual 
truth,  and  gradually  fitted  for  receiving  and 
for  disseminating  the  revelation  which  was  to  be 
made  to  them  in  "the  fullness  of  time."  Through 
the  period  of  the  Judges,  of  the  united  kingdom, 
of  the  divided  kingdom,  through  Exile  and  Re- 
turn, this  training  went  on,  all  having  direct  or 
indirect  bearing  upon  their  preparation  for  that 
which  was  to  come.  Sometimes  there  was  serious 
retrogression,  but  there  was  never  a  time  when 
there  was  not  a  faithful  few,  a  "remnant" 
through  whom  the  knowledge  of  the  one  God  and 
of  his  relation  to  his  people  and  to  the  world  was 
handed  down  to  those  who  were  to  come  after. 

The  influence  of  the  prophets,  with  their  lofty 
ideals,  their  clear  moral  perceptions,  their  fear- 
less preaching,  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
They  seemed  to  appear  at  just  the  needed  junc- 
tures, and  each  one  of  them  adapted  himself  and 
his  message  to  the  needs  of  his  time,  yet  all  the 
while  looking  forward  to  a  better  era  to  come,  a 
Messianic  age.  So  at  length  when  the  fullness  of 
time  had  come,  and  other  conditions  were  ripe, 
a  people,  prepared  by  a  long  and  peculiar  train- 
ing, was  in  readiness  for  its  great  mission. 

(2)  The  Mosaic  Law.  During  all  this  long 
period  of  discipline  through  the  exigencies  of 
their  external  history,  the  Mosaic  law,  with  its 
moral,  civil  and  ceremonial  requirements,  was   a 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  15 

powerful  molding  influence  upon  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple internally,  i.  e.,  upon  their  thought  and  life. 
It  did  much  to  impress  upon  them  certain  great 
and  fundamental  religious  ideas  in  regard  to  the 
one  supreme  God;  his  holy,  righteous  character; 
the  moral  law,  human  obligation,  sin  and  its 
penalty,  the  need  of  salvation.  In  this  way, 
there  was  a  gradual  preparation  for  receiving  the 
more  complete  revelation  which  was  to  come  later. 
In  this  preparation  was  the  germ  of  that  revela- 
tion. The  rites  of  the  Hebrew  religion  were  typ- 
ical of  it.  It  awakened  in  men  a  sense  of  sin  and 
the  need  of  deliverance  from  its  guilt  and  power, 
something  which  the  Mosaic  law  itself  could  not 
impart.  Many  perversions  and  corruptions  of 
this  law  came  in  through  the  centuries,  by  which 
the  thought  of  the  people  was  often  deflected  from 
the  course  which  had  been  marked  out  for  it,  still 
there  was  always  the  faithful  "remnant"  of  those 
who  were  loyal  to  the  highest  religious  ideals,  and 
in  Christ's  time  there  were  some  whose  hearts  were 
prepared  spiritually  to  receive  and  to  appreciate 
the  new  faith.  They  were,  indeed,  longing  for  the 
very  salvation  which  it  promised,  but  which  the 
Jewish  religion  could  not  give.  They  were  feel- 
ing their  way  toward  something  better  than  the 
best  which   Judaism   aff^orded. 

But  there  were  numerous  and  serious  obstacles 
to  the  realization  of  all  this.  One  of  them  grew 
out  of  the  fact  that  the  drift  of  religious  thought 
had  at  this  time  been  turned  from  its  proper  chan- 


16      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

nel,  by  which  current  religious  conceptions  and 
the  corresponding  religious  life  were  grossly  per- 
verted. The  earnest  spirit  of  earlier  periods  had 
died  out,  and  a  zealous  formalism  prevailed.  The 
letter  of  the  law  was  worshiped,  its  spirit  had  been 
lost.  The  thought,  for  instance,  with  reference 
to  the  expected  Messiah  and  the  nature  of  the 
kingdom  he  was  to  establish,  was  largely  material 
and  mixed  with  much  earthly  dross.  The  spirit- 
ual aspects  of  the  kingdom,  which  should  have 
been  made  to  stand  out  as  its  most  conspicuous 
feature,  were  relegated  to  the  background.  The 
prevailing  interpretation  of  God's  law,  which  is 
what  the  Mosaic  law  was  termed,  and  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  institutions  connected  with  it,  were 
decidedly  unspiritual.  Then  there  were  the  use- 
less, lumbering,  burdensome  additions  of  the 
scribes,  the  traditions.  It  was  these  "tradi- 
tions of  the  elders,"  to  which  the  Pharisees  clung 
so  persistently,  but  which  Christ  repudiated, 
which  more  than  any  other  one  thing  stood  in  the 
way  of  his  progress. 

Furthermore,  the  people,  conscious  of  having 
been  chosen  of  God  to  be  the  medium  of  his  spe- 
cial revelation  to  men,  were,  in  consequence, 
steeped  in  bigotry  and  self-conceit.  As  being  the 
descendants  of  an  illustrious  ancestor,  the  recog- 
nized founder  of  their  race  and  the  recipient  of 
numerous  divine  communications,  they  regarded 
themselves  as  the  special  favorites  of  heaven. 
This   overweening  pride  led   them   to   look   down 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST         17 

upon  all  other  peoples,  and  this,  together  with 
their  complicated  and  minute  legal  system,  con- 
stituted a  barricade  which  separated  them  from 
all  others  not  of  their  race.  Gentiles,  in  their 
view,  could  only  share  in  the  exalted  blessings  of 
their  religion  by  first  being  naturalized  among 
them  through  submitting  to  certain  rites  and 
adopting  certain  views  and  customs  which  were 
distinctively  their  own. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  how  serious  an 
undertaking  it  must  have  been  to  try  to  disabuse 
the  popular  mind  of  all  these  misconceptions,  and 
to  establish  the  idea  of  a  purely  spiritual  function 
for  the  coming  One,  and  of  a  kingdom  purely 
spiritual  in  its  nature.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
was  the  spiritual  quality  of  Christ's  work,  and  of 
the  kingdom  which  he  proclaimed,  which  so 
scandalized  the  Jewish  leaders.  With  their  per- 
verted views,  they  were  not  looking  for  that  kind 
of  a  Messiah  or  that  kind  of  a  kingdom.  In  such 
circumstances,  before  the  new  movement  could 
make  effective  headway,  these  various  obstacles 
would  have  to  be  removed  or  overcome.  The  bar- 
ricade of  Jewish  pride  and  exclusiveness  would 
have  to  be  broken  down;  deep-seated  prejudices 
and  errors  would  have  to  be  uprooted;  current 
rabbinical  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures would  have  to  be  corrected,  and  no  end  of 
traditional  rubbish  would  have  to  be  cleared  away. 
Still,  with  all  its  choking  growth  of  perverted  re- 
ligious conceptions,  and  the  wide  prevalence  of  an 


18      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

unspiritual  and  hollow  formalism,  this  was  the 
best  soil  for  the  purpose  to  be  found  in  all  the 
world.  If  the  new  movement  could  not  strike  root 
here,  if  it  could  not  find  attaching  points  in  the 
religious  thought  and  life  of  this  people,  it  could 
not  do  so  anywhere. 

At  the  same  time,  it  was  also  true  that  there 
were  not  a  few  conditions  which  were  distinctly 
favorable  for  such  a  movement.  Notwithstand- 
ing its  perversions  and  misinterpretations,  the 
Mosaic  law  did  much  toward  preparing  the  minds 
of  the  people  for  the  final  and  more  spiritual  re- 
ligion, which  was  foreshadowed  by  it,  and  of  which 
its  varied  rites  were  symbolical.  While  the  pre- 
vailing religious  customs  were  largely  unspiritual, 
it  was  also  a  fact  that  scattered  here  and  there 
among  the  population  were  some  persons  who  were 
of  a  truly  spiritual  character,  whose  hearts  were 
prepared  to  receive  the  seed  of  the  new  kingdom, 
and  who  were  ready  to  take  up  and  carry  forward 
the  movement  which  was  about  to  be  inaugurated. 
Here  at  least  was  a  point  of  contact  with  the 
chosen  people.  Here,  so  far  as  it  went,  was  a 
fertile  soil  in  which  the  new  movement  might  take 
root. 

(3)  Messianic  Expectation.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  feature  of  the  preparation  of  the 
Jewish  people  for  Christ  and  Christianity  was 
the  existence  in  the  popular  thought  of  what  was 
known  as  a  Messianic  expectation.  There  was  a 
confident    anticipation,    a    deep    and    widespread 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  19 

hope,  whose  origin  antedated  their  existence  as  a 
nation,  going  back  even  to  the  founder  of  their 
race,  that  the  future  held  great  blessings  in  store 
for  them  as  a  people,  that  their  golden  age  was 
in  the  future  rather  than  in  the  past.  This  hope 
crystallized  at  length  into  the  expectation  of  a 
universal  kingdom  which  should  be  inaugurated 
by  one  specially  anointed  for  this  purpose,  and 
who  was  to  be  God's  vicegerent  on  earth.  This 
kingdom  was  to  be  a  kingdom  of  Jews ;  Jerusalem 
was  to  be  its  seat,  and  all  other  nations  and  peo- 
ples were  eventually  to  become  subject  to  it. 
Through  some  direct  divine  interposition,  the 
great  world  empires,  especially  the  Roman  power 
by  which  the  Jewish  people  were  at  that  time  op- 
pressed, were  to  be  overthrown,  and  a  worldwide 
dominion  of  its  own,  which  had  long  been  reserved 
for  it,  was  to  be  established.  Just  when  all  this 
would  be  brought  about  was  not  clear,  but  at  the 
time  of  the  advent,  all  were  on  the  alert  for  signs 
of  its  consummation.  This  idea  in  general — 
which  the  apocalyptic  literature  of  the  genera- 
tions immediately  preceding  helped  to  foster,  with 
more  or  less  vagueness  as  to  details,  and  with  all 
the  more  spiritual  elements  of  it  largely  eliminated 
— was  in  the  popular  mind  at  the  time  of  Christ's 
advent. 

And  yet  this  view  of  the  coming  King  and  king- 
dom, crude  and  material  as  it  was,  might  still  af- 
ford a  foundation  for  something  higher,  for  the 
material  idea  spiritualized  might  indicate  the  true 


20      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

conception.  It  might  be  a  long  and  difficult  proc- 
ess to  bring  this  about,  but  it  could  be  done,  as 
afterward  it  was  done.  Even  the  forerunner  of 
the  coming  One  may  not  have  fully  grasped  the 
purely  spiritual  conception  of  the  kingdom,  yet 
his  thought  of  it  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age, 
and  his  work  was  vitally  important  as  helping  to 
prepare  the  public  mind  for  it.  It  was  reserved 
for  Christ  himself  to  set  forth  and  to  propagate 
the  bold  idea  of  a  kingdom  which  should  be  purely 
spiritual,  and  to  make,  as  it  may  have  seemed  to 
many,  a  rash  attempt  to  realize  it.  Without 
some  groundwork  in  the  popular  thought  of  a 
material  kingdom  of  God  upon  which  to  build,  it 
would  have  been  far  more  difficult,  if  not  impos- 
sible, to  have  impressed  a  purely  spiritual  con- 
ception of  the  same.  What  the  Jews  were  looking 
for  in  a  material  sense,  Jesus  came  to  in- 
augurate in  a  spiritual  sense,  a  worldwide,  ever- 
lasting, spiritual  kingdom.  The  seat  of  this  new 
kingdom  would  be,  not  the  material  Jerusalem  be- 
low, as  was  the  popular  thought,  but  rather  the 
invisible  spiritual  Jerusalem  above. 

(4)  The  Dispersion.  Another  fact  which 
had  much  to  do  with  the  extension  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  after  it  came,  was  the  wide  dispersion  of 
the  Jews  throughout  civilized  countries.  Partly 
as  a  result  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  and  other 
forcible  deportations ;  but  as  much  perhaps 
through  their  own  impulses  as  an  enterprising 
people,  Jews  at  length  came  to  be  found  every- 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST         ^1 

where.  Following  the  lines  of  trade,  they  had 
settled  at  all  the  main  seats  of  industry.  But,  al- 
though they  were  thus  brought  under  the  broad- 
ening influence  of  the  civilizations  with  which  they 
came  in  contact,  and  especially  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Greek  culture,  so  widely  prevalent, 
adopting  the  language  of  Greece  even  to  the  for- 
getting of  their  own,  they  preserved  their  Jewish 
peculiarities  and  institutions  wherever  they  went, 
and  were  faithful  to  the  religious  teachings  and 
moral  standards  of  their  fathers.  Their  attend- 
ance upon  the  great  annual  festivals  at  Jerusalem 
from  time  to  time,  often  making  long  pilgrimages 
to  do  so,  did  much  to  keep  up  this  loyalty.  Al- 
though dwelling  among  foreign  peoples,  they  were 
not  of  them.  Synagogues,  in  which  the  Mosaic 
law  was  expounded,  were  found  in  every  city  of 
consequence.  It  was  literally  true,  as  stated  in 
the  book  of  Acts,  that  Moses,  from  generations  of 
old,  "had  in  every  city  them  that  preached  him, 
being  read  in  the  synagogues  every  Sabbath." 
Everywhere,  too,  the  Jews  made  proselytes  to  their 
faith  from  the  surrounding  Gentile  population, 
— they  were,  in  fact,  exceedingly  zealous  to  this 
end.  Some  of  the  proselytes  subjected  them- 
selves wholly  to  the  requirements  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  including  circumcision,  and  so  entered  into 
the  full  privileges  of  the  Jewish  faith.  Most  of 
them,  however,  did  not  go  as  far  as  this,  being 
content  with  partial  conformity. 

The  Jewish  synagogues  or  worshiping  places, 


S2      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

which  were  found  in  all  the  larger  cities  at  least, 
furnished  a  center  of  missionary  operations 
wherever  the  apostles  of  the  new  religion  went. 
Not  only  could  the  widely  dispersed  Jews  be 
reached  in  this  way,  but  access  was  also  afforded 
to  such  Gentiles,  called  proselytes,  as  had  become 
more  or  less  affiliated  with  them  in  worship.  It 
was  among  the  latter  indeed,  influenced  already 
by  the  ideas  of  Judaism,  but  not  bred  to  its  ex- 
clusiveness  or  finally  and  fully  drawn  into  its 
circles,  that  the  Christian  faith  found  its  first  and 
best  field.  Through  the  latter,  also,  access  would 
be  less  difficult  to  the  Gentiles  in  general.  These 
dispersed  Jews  thus  formed  a  connecting  link,  a 
mediator,  between  the  early  Jewish  Christians  and 
the  Gentile  world.  They  became  a  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  promulgation  of  the  gospel. 
In  fact,  it  was  the  multitude  of  these  Greek-speak- 
ing or  Hellenized  Jews  of  the  dispersion,  quick- 
ened and  broadened  by  their  contact  with  foreign 
life  and  thought,  rather  than  the  narrow  and  ex- 
clusive minority  in  Palestine,  who  were  to  be- 
come the  real  missionaries  of  the  world. 

Thus  there  was  a  measure  of  preparation  in  the 
conditions  then  existing  among  the  Jewish  people, 
a  starting  point,  a  vantage  ground,  a  "seed 
plot"  for  the  new  movement,  a  soil  in  which  it 
could  take  root  and  grow.  The  need  for  which 
the  Mosaic  sj^stem  failed  to  provide,  it  was  to  be 
the  function  of  the  new  religion  to  meet.  The 
movement  might  not  at  once  be  generally  under- 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST         23 

stood,  might  be  much  misapprehended,  still,  in  no 
other  land  and  among  no  other  people  were  the 
conditions  so  favorable  as  among  the  Jews,  and  at 
the  very  time  when  it  actually  began. 

THE  GREEKS 

But  while  there  had  thus  been  for  a  long  period 
a  steadily  advancing  preparation  among  the  Jew- 
ish people  for  the  coming  kingdom  and  its  Mes- 
sianic King,  it  was  eminently  fitting  that  for  an 
event  which  was  to  be  universal  in  its  scope  there 
should  be  corresponding  preparation  in  the  world 
at  large.  Accordingly  we  find  in  the  historical 
situation  at  the  time  a  condition  of  affairs  pe- 
culiarly favorable  for  the  inauguration  and  ex- 
tension of  the  new  movement. 

It  was  so  among  the  Greeks,  especially  along  in- 
tellectual lines.  They  were  a  maritime  and  colo- 
nizing people.  Their  settlements  were  dispersed 
among  the  islands  and  along  the  seacoast  of  the 
Mediterranean  as  far  west  as  Spain.  This  colo- 
nizing process  had  been  going  on  from  the  time 
when  the  authentic  history  of  Greece  began.  But 
wherever  Greeks  went,  their  language  and  culture 
went  with  them.  Especially  was  this  the  case  in 
connection  with  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the 
Great  three  centuries  before  the  Christian  Era. 
Greek  influence  and  the  Greek  tongue  were  ex- 
tended far  to  the  eastward.  They  thus  became 
widely  prevalent  both  east  arid  west.  The  Greek 
language  was  very  generally  spoken  in  the  cities 


M      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

and  towns  of  the  Empire.  It  became  at  length  the 
lan^age  of  commerce  and  of  polite  intercourse. 
It  was  a  means  of  communication  between  the  peo- 
ple of  the  many  diverse  tongues  which  were 
spoken  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Moreover,  this 
language  was  specially  adapted  to  the  uses  of 
the  new  religious  thought.  It  was  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  delicate  tongues  ever  spoken, 
fitted  as  no  other  to  express  the  highest  thoughts 
and  the  worthiest  emotions.  It  was  a  language 
ready  at  hand  for  the  revelation  which  Christ 
came  to  make,  adapted  to  its  ends  as  no  other. 
From  its  almost  universal  use,  his  teachings,  wher- 
ever carried,  would  be  intelligible  to  the  people. 
Wherever  in  fact  the  apostles  went  in  their  mis- 
sionary journeys  later,  they  could,  with  their 
familiarity  with  the  Greek — which  they  had 
doubtless  learned  along  with  their  native  tongue 
— ^be  readily  understood. 

But  this  was  not  all  that  Greece  contributed  to 
the  world's  preparation  for  the  new  faith.  In  its 
mythical  religions — which  was  also  true  of  those 
of  Rome — the  subjective  sentiments  which  enter 
into  religion  were  brought  into  play,  crudely  mani- 
fested though  they  may  have  been,  and  defective 
as  were  the  popular  conceptions  of  the  true  ob- 
jects of  devotion.  In  all  this,  there  was  an  un- 
conscious groping  after  God,  an  effort  to  meet 
an  unfulfilled  but  real  need  of  the  religious  na- 
ture. Then,  too,  there  early  began  to  be  a  drift 
toward    monotheism,   ignorant    and    superstitious 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  25 

as  men's  ideas  and  their  worship  were.  This 
tendency  grew  in  strength  as  the  years  advanced. 
Then  at  length  Greek  philosophy  made  marked 
steps  of  progress  toward  some  of  the  great  truths 
which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  faith. 
Not  only  did  the  philosophic  spirit  tend  to  under- 
mine and  dissipate  the  superstitions  which  had 
preceded,  causing  a  widespread  skepticism  con- 
cerning them  to  prevail,  it  originated  ideas  and 
habits  of  thought  which  had  more  or  less  direct 
affinity  with  the  religion  of  the  gospel,  which 
found  indeed,  at  length,  in  this  religion,  their 
proper  complement  or  counterpart.  Such  ideas 
as  the  following  came  to  be  held  by  many  leaders 
of  thought:  the  doctrine  of  theism,  or  of  one  su- 
preme personal  God  over  the  many  gods,  and  the 
duty  of  absolute  obedience  to  him;  the  existence 
of  a  universal  providence  and  a  moral  govern- 
ment of  the  world;  a  belief  also,  though  not  con- 
fidently held,  in  a  future  life  and  immortality ;  and 
the  need  of  redemption,  though  not  in  the  full 
Christian  sense  of  deliverance  from  sin. 

But  with  all  that  was  congenial  with  Christian 
truth  in  Greek  philosophy,  and  which  has  always 
been  recognized  by  the  church,  it  came  far  short, 
in  its  resources  and  ability,  of  the  power  to  pre- 
pare the  soul  for  the  exigencies  of  life,  whether 
in  the  way  of  help  in  moral  weakness,  comfort  in 
trial  and  sorrow,  or  relief  from  the  fear  of  death 
which  held  men  in  bondage.  Though  it  ap- 
proached, it  never  reached  the  religious  concep- 


S6      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

tions  of  either  the  Old  Testament  or  the  New. 
The  mind  had  been  brought  to  the  borders  of 
Christian  doctrine,  but  that  was  all.  The  Chris- 
tian religion  alone,  which  was  the  revelation  of 
God  as  given  in  Jesus  Christ,  could  meet  these 
questions  which  philosophy  failed  fully  to  an- 
swer, and  provide  the  needed  grace  and  deliver- 
ance which  it  was  unable  to  supply.  Redemption, 
in  the  highest  and  fullest  sense  of  that  term,  is 
the  distinctive  feature  of  Christianity,  something 
which  neither  in  the  past  nor  in  the  present  has 
philosophy  been  able  to  provide,  and  which  is 
not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  great  religions  of 
the  world  outside  of  the  Christian  faith.  Yet  the 
contribution  of  Greek  philosophy  as  well  as  of  the 
Greek  language,  to  the  general  preparation  of 
the  world  for  Christ  and  his  teachings,  was  both 
real  and  very  manifest. 

In  this  connection  we  may  refer  to  the  Septua- 
gint,  a  remarkable  work  which  was  to  find  accept- 
ance among  Greek  speaking  Jews,  especially  in 
Egypt,  and  to  influence,  also,  many  Gentiles  and 
others,  and  in  a  singular  way,  help  to  prepare 
for  the  coming  One.  It  was  a  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  produced  at  Alexandria,  one 
of  the  most  noted  centers  of  the  scattered  Jews. 
It  probably  originated  in  the  need  of  those  Gre- 
cian or  Hellenized  Jews — most  of  whom  were 
ignorant  of  the  Hebrew  language — of  some  ver- 
sion of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  which  they  could 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  27 

read  and  understand.  Its  use  became  widespread 
among  this  class,  thus  becoming  a  peoples'  Bible 
for  the  large  Jewish  world  outside  of  Palestine. 
By  means  of  this  translation,  a  knowledge  of  the 
hope  of  Israel  was  also  extended  to  the  Gentiles. 
This  translation,  together  with  the  large  mass 
of  literature  which  grew  up  immediately  after 
in  the  way  of  comment  or  explanation  of  it,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  great  step  in  the  movement  of 
the  Jewish  faith,  under  the  direction  of  divine 
providence,  toward  the  Gentile  world,  and  of 
preparation  for  that  which  was  to  follow. 
Largely  through  this,  the  Gentile  world  was 
brought  to  the  threshold  of  the  church. 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

The  close  relation  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the 
introduction  and  extension  of  Christ's  kingdom  in 
the  world,  has  not  failed  to  strike  thoughtful 
minds  who  have  studied  the  subject.  It  had  been 
built  up  by  incessant  wars  for  many  generations. 
Nation  after  nation  had  been  subjugated  by  it, 
and  together  were  now  connected  in  one  vast  politi- 
cal system.  These  nations  included  all  the  civil- 
ized peoples  of  the  world  at  that  time,  while  the 
relation  of  most  of  them  to  the  Mediterranean, 
which  now  became  an  inland  Roman  sea,  gave  to 
her  dominions  a  certain  geographical  unity. 
Moreover,  in  its  policy  toward  the  various  prov- 
inces which  had  been  incorporated  in  it,  the  Ro- 
man   power    was    exceedingly    liberal.     For    the 


28      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

most  part,  local  laws,  e.  g.,  were  left  undisturbed. 
This  naturally  tended  more  and  more  to  the  uni- 
fication and  assimilation  of  these  nations.  Pre- 
ceding world  empires  had  been  little  more  than 
agglomerations  of  diverse  peoples,  in  which  there 
was  no  mixture  or  coherence,  no  actual  unity. 
But  the  Romans,  from  the  beginning,  had  mani- 
fested a  rare  faculty  for  organization,  a  genius 
for  lawmaking,  and  had  pursued  a  policy  looking 
toward  assimilation,  so  that  in  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Empire  had  in  some  true  sense  become  bound 
together  into  a  homogeneous  whole. 

The  influence  of  Roman  jurisprudence,  which 
was  the  principal  legacy  of  Rome  to  subsequent 
ages,  had  much  to  do  with  bringing  about  this  re- 
sult. It  had  been  a  gradual  growth,  and  under 
its  provisions,  the  impartial  administration  of 
justice  was  not  only  possible,  but  was  made  a 
constant  aim.  This  naturally  exerted  a  leveling 
influence,  tending  more  and  more  to  the  eff^acement 
of  the  distinction  between  subject  and  citizen. 
Furthermore,  under  these  laws,  Roman  citizens 
could  claim  protection  anywhere  within  the  Em- 
pire. More  than  once  the  apostle  Paul  availed 
himself  of  his  special  privileges  as  a  Roman 
citizen. 

Then,  too,  facilities  of  travel  were  never  better, 
and  these  did  much  to  help  on  this  result.  A  sys- 
tem of  paved  roadways — some  of  which  may  still 
be  traced — extended  from  the  capital  into  all 
the  leading  provinces  of  the  Empire.     These,  with 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  a9 

their  branches,  were  connected  at  the  seaports 
with  the  routes  of  maritime  travel.  By  this 
means,  the  most  remote  cities  of  the  Empire  were 
bound  together  and  connected  with  the  capital; 
intercourse  between  the  various  provinces  was 
rendered  easy ;  while  under  the  protection  of  Ro- 
man law,  life  and  property  were  generally  secure. 
As  all  religions  were  tolerated,  paths  were  thus 
opened  for  the  diffusion  of  the  Christian  faith. 
The  machinery  of  travel  was  ready  to  its  hand. 
All  of  Paul's  missionary  tours  were  on  well 
known  lines  of  Roman  travel.  These  roads  were 
used  by  other  apostles  also,  and  such  was  the  pub- 
lic habit  of  traveling,  that  any  large  city  like 
Corinth,  Ephesus,  or  Thessalonica,  would  afford 
opportunity  of  contact  with  persons  from  places 
remote  as  well  as  those  near  by.  From  such 
centers  the  gospel  could  readily  spread  into  the 
surrounding  territory. 

Furthermore,  it  was  a  period  of  universal  peace. 
The  time  for  which  the  Roman  people  had  long 
sighed  had  at  length  come.  The  doors  of  the 
Temple  of  Janus  were  closed.  The  Empire  was 
enjoying  a  season  of  tranquillity  such  as  the  world 
had  never  known  before.  Its  pacification  and  uni- 
fication had  been  accomplished.  A  condition 
most  favorable  for  the  spread  of  the  Christian 
faith  and  without  which  its  world-wide  extension 
would  have  been  impossible,  prevailed. 

Still  further,  the  thought  of  a  universal  empire 
no  doubt  had  its  influence  in  accustoming  men  to 


30      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

the  idea  of  a  universal  faith.  Otherwise  such  a 
thought  would  have  been  foreign  to  early  Chris- 
tian thinking.  The  Empire  formed  a  soil  in 
which  such  a  conception  could  grow.  The  sepa- 
ration of  religion  from  the  state  was  likewise  a 
possibility  to  their  thought  by  the  conditions 
which  prevailed.  Hitherto  each  nation  had  its 
own  religion,  which  was  intimately  related  to  its 
body  politic,  entered  indeed  into  its  warp  and 
woof.  This  was  now  changed,  and  it  was  seen 
how  religion  could  be  distinct  from  political  in- 
stitutions, and  how  one  universal  religion  might 
prevail  independently  of  any  particular  system 
of  government,  or  the  fact  of  many  governments. 
This  was  a  great  advance  upon  previous  provin- 
cial thought,  and  the  conception  of  one  spiritual 
religion  and  kingdom  for  all  the  world  was  no 
longer  a  fanciful  one. 

But  perhaps  the  most  notable  feature  of  the 
preparation  of  the  world  for  the  reception  and 
spreading  of  Christianity,  was  the  general  sense 
of  religious  need.  There  was  widespread  skepti- 
cism in  regard  to  existing  religions,  of  which  there 
were  many,  all  of  which  were  showing  signs  of 
decay.  Old  beliefs  were  crumbling.  The  old 
paganism  was  practically  dead.  Serious  minded, 
thoughtful  people,  recognized  the  inadequacy  of 
all  existing  religions  to  meet  the  soul's  need,  and 
were  eager  for  something  more  satisfying,  even 
more  so  than  the  Jewish  faith  itself.  This  skep- 
ticism was  deep  and  incurable.     There  seemed  to 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  31 

be  a  real  hunger  for  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God. 
Humanity  sighed  for  deliverance.  Indeed,  it  is 
true,  as  some  one  has  said:  "Christianity  came 
into  a  world  which  was  hungering  and  thirsting 
for  a  spiritual  religion."  What  Judaism  partly 
supplied,  Christianity  was  to  offer  with  complete- 
ness. 

Then,  too,  the  morals  of  the  people  were  at  an 
extremely  low  ebb,  perhaps  never  more  so.  Paul's 
description  of  the  moral  condition  of  the  world 
at  that  period  in  his  epistle  to  the  Romans,  has 
been  demonstrated  not  to  be  overdrawn.  Reli- 
gion and  morality  were  divorced.  The  time  was 
manifestly  ripe  for  something  better,  something 
able  to  change  all  this,  if  there  was  any  such 
thing,  something  to  supersede  the  effete  religious 
systems  which  then  prevailed. 

We  have  now,  in  a  cursory  way,  covered  the 
ground  of  the  providential  preparation  of  the 
world  for  the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity.  We  have  seen  how  a  par- 
ticular people  was  chosen,  not  arbitrarily,  but 
on  the  ground  of  a  native  fitness  above  other 
peoples ;  that  this  people  dwelt  in  a  land  pecu- 
liarly fitted,  in  location  and  in  natural  character- 
istics, for  their  development;  that  the  varied  ex- 
periences through  which  they  passed  had  much 
to  do  with  their  preparation;  that  the  Mosaic 
law  was  given  as  a  preparatory  system  or  reli- 
gion, to  develop  in  them  a  sense  of  sin  and  of  the 


3^      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

need  of  salvation,  but  was  to  be  superseded  at 
length  when  the  full  revelation  of  God  was  given 
to  the  world  in  Christ.  Among  this  people  there 
came  to  prevail  at  length  a  general  expectation 
of  a  Messiah  to  come  when  the  time  was  ripe  for 
it,  while  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  throughout 
the  civilized  world  would  be  helpful  toward  giv- 
ing the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  by  whom  they  were 
surrounded  or  in  the  midst  of  whom  they  lived. 

We  have  seen  what  contribution  the  Greeks 
made  to  this  general  preparation  for  Christ's 
coming,  in  the  fact  that  the  Greek  language, 
which  was  specially  fitted  to  express  spiritual 
thought,  had  become  well-nigh  universal  at  this 
time,  so  that  those  who  were  able  to  speak  it  could 
find  access  to  people  everywhere  with  the  gospel. 
Greek  philosophy  also  helped  to  prepare  the  way 
by  the  ideas  which  it  developed,  many  of  them 
being  but  rudimentary  forms  of  great  truths 
which  lay  at  the  foundation  of  Christianity,  and 
which  Christ  promulgated. 

The  Roman  Empire  had  much  to  do  in  the  pre- 
paring of  the  conditions  for  the  advent  of  Christ 
and  the  dissemination  of  the  gospel  by  its  unifica- 
tion of  many  races  under  one  government;  by 
the  prevalence  everywhere  of  just  laws ;  by  the 
facilities  of  travel  at  that  time;  by  the  universal 
peace  which  prevailed;  and  by  the  undefined  sense 
of  religious  need.  The  existing  religions  were 
decaying,  and  the  moral  condition  of  the  people 
made  manifest  the  need  of  some  new  force  ade- 


PREPARATION  FOR  CHRIST  33 

quate  to  the  bringing  about  of  a  new  and  higher 
order  of  things. 

Then,  the  conditions  being  ripe,  all  these  prep- 
arations having  converged  to  a  single  point  of 
time,  as  had  never  before  been  the  case,  and  has 
never  been  since,  Christ  came,  and  with  his  com- 
ing a  new  spiritual  force  was  introduced  into  the 
hearts  of  those  who  received  and  acted  upon  his 
message.  Nor  was  this  something  which  would 
be  operative  only  at  that  period.  Rather  it  is» 
still  working,  the  movement  then  inaugurated  is 
still  going  forward,  directed  by  the  same  intelli- 
gent purpose,  the  divine  spirit  cooperating  with* 
a  view  to  the  final  triumph  of  the  kingdom 
throughout  the  world. 

But  immediately  preceding  the  advent,  as  a 
concluding  feature  of  the  preparation,  there  was 
a  precursor,  a  forerunner,  a  heralding  voice,  to 
make  announcement  of  the  event  and  to  make  local 
preparation  for  it.  To  this,  after  a  chapter  de- 
voted to  the  general  conditions  which  prevailed 
among  the  Jewish  people  at  that  time,  some 
knowledge  of  which  is  essential  to  a  clear  under- 
standing of  what  is  to  follow,  we  must  next  give 
attention. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  HISTORICAL,  POLITICAL  AND 

RELIGIOUS  BACKGROUND  OF 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

Some  knowledge  of  the  political  and  religious 
conditions  which  prevailed  in  Palestine  and  the 
Roman  Empire  at  the  time  when  Christ  entered 
upon  his  public  ministry  is  essential  to  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  New  Testament  records. 
From  the  nature  of  the  case  an  acquaintance  with 
these  conditions  must  throw  much  light  upon  the 
narrative  itself  which  contains  many  allusions  to 
them.  Some  of  these  allusions  can  only  be  under- 
stood in  this  way.  These  facts  constitute  the 
setting  or  the  background  of  the  New  Testament 
picture. 

HISTORICAL  AND  POLITICAL 

The  Roman  Empire  at  this  time  embraced  the 
entire  civilized  world  as  then  known.  Nation  af- 
ter nation  had  been  brought  under  the  power  of 
Rome,  until  its  sway  extended  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  eastward  to  the  Euphrates  River,  a  dis- 
tance of  3,000  miles  and  more,  and  from  the 
Desert  of  Sahara  and  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile  on 

the  south  as  far  as  Scotland  and  the  Danube  to 
34 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        35 

the  north.  The  Mediterranean  had  thus  become 
an  inland  sea,  entirely  surrounded  by  the  Roman 
Empire. 

Toward  the  subjugated  provinces  the  Roman 
policy  was  liberal  and  sagacious.  So  far  as  prac- 
ticable, local  laws  and  customs  in  each  case  were 
left  undisturbed.  This  tended  to  the  gradual 
unification  and  assimilation  of  the  heterogeneous 
elements  composing  the  empire.  This  was  ma- 
terially aided  by  the  system  of  paved  roads  which 
was  gradually  covering  the  territory  embraced. 
A  number  of  lines  went  out  from  the  capital  to 
the  extremities  of  the  empire,  by  which  inter- 
course between  the  various  peoples  was  rendered 
easy  and  safe,  while  business,  pleasure,  official 
duties,  and  the  movements  of  troops  led  to  their 
constant  use.  Another  influence  tending  to  the 
same  result  of  unification,  was  the  wide  prevalence 
of  the  Greek  language  at  this  time,  introduced  in 
connection  with  the  conquests  of  Alexander  three 
centuries  before.  To  a  large  extent  it  had  be- 
come a  common  medium  of  communication. 

The  Jewish  nation  was  one  of  the  many  which 
were  subject  to  Rome  at  this  time.  The  inde- 
pendence which  it  had  enjoyed  for  less  than  a 
hundred  years  under  the  Maccabees,  had  givert 
place  to  this  subjugated  condition  in  B.  C.  63, 
or  about  one  hundred  years  before  Christ  began 
his  public  ministry.  At  diff*erent  periods  of  its 
history  (after  B.  C.  721  when  the  Northern  King- 
dom  fell)   it  had  been  under  the  Assyrian,  the 


36      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Egyptian,  the  Babylonian,  the  Persian,  and  the 
Greek  powers.  During  all  this  time,  however, 
the  Jews  had  preserved  their  customs  and  peculiar^ 
ities  essentially  unchanged.  Wherever  they  were 
found — and  they  were  numerous  in  all  the  large 
cities  of  the  empire — this  was  the  case.  They  did 
not  assimilate  with  other  races  even  if  they  dwelt 
among  them.  As  a  rule  they  remained  loyal  to 
their  religion,  and  many  of  them  made  long  pil- 
grimages to  Jerusalem  to  attend  upon  the  great 
annual  religious  festivals  which  were  held  there 
from  time  to  time. 

Palestine  was  really  only  indirectly  under  Ro- 
man rule.  The  policy  of  leaving  the  administra- 
tion of  local  affairs  largely  to  the  subjugated 
peoples,  prevailed.  In  the  year  B.  C.  37,  Herod 
I — sometimes  called  Herod  the  Great,  an  Idumean 
by  birth — became  king,  his  reign  continuing  33 
years.  He  was  a  man  of  ability  and  a  great 
builder.  Among  other  things  he  rebuilt  and 
decorated  the  Temple  in  order  to  conciliate  the 
people,  to  whom  his  tyranny  and  brutality  had 
rendered  him  odious.  It  was  he  who,  after  Christ 
was  born  at  Bethlehem,  issued  an  edict  for  the 
slaughter  of  all  the  male  children  of  the  place  un- 
der two  years  of  age,  hoping  in  this  way  to  in- 
clude him  among  them.  His  death  occurred  soon 
after.  By  his  will,  which  was  practically,  though 
not  entirely  confirmed  at  Rome,  his  kingdom  was 
divided  among  his  three  sons. 

The  first  of  the  three  parts  into  which  the  king- 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        37 

dom  was  divided  was  called  the  province  of  Judea, 
which  included  both  Samaria  on  the  north  and 
Idumea  on  the  south.  This  district  was  assigned 
to  Archelaus,  who,  after  a  few  years,  was  deposed 
for  his  barbarity  and  cruelty.  His  territory  was 
then  made  an  imperial  province  and  was  ruled  by 
a  Roman  procurator  or  governor.  The  second 
part  of  Herod's  kingdom,  comprising  Galilee  and 
Perea — the  latter  east  of  the  Jordan  and  south- 
east of  the  sea  of  Galilee — was  given  to  Antipas, 
who  is  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  as  Herod 
Antipas,  or  Herod  the  Tetrarch.  His  capital 
was  Tiberias  which  he  himself  built.  He  was  the 
Herod  under  whose  sway  Jesus  lived  while  in  Gali- 
lee, and  he  it  was  who  executed  John  the  Baptist. 
He  was  finally  deposed  and  banished.  Galilee  was 
an  exceedingly  prosperous  region,  full  of  vine- 
yards and  gardens,  cities  and  villages.  Its  dense 
population  was  made  up  of  both  Gentiles  and 
Jews,  the  latter,  no  doubt,  predominating,  yet 
their  life  was  freer  and  broader  than  that  of  their 
brethren  in  Judea.  Perea  was  somewhat  larger 
than  Galilee,  but  was  of  little  importance  politi- 
cally. The  third  portion  of  Herod's  kingdom 
comprised  Iturea  and  Trachonitis,  the  district, 
generally  speaking,  to  the  east  and  northeast  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  assigned  to  Philip,  who 
is  referred  to  by  Luke  as  "Philip  the  Tetrarch." 
But  the  most  important  of  these  three  provinces 
into  which  Herod's  dominions  were  divided,  was 
the  first,  the  Province  of  Judea^  with  its  three 


S8      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

parts,  Judea,  Idumea  (originally  Edom),  and 
Samaria.  Between  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter 
and  those  of  Judea,  a  long  time  feud,  extending 
back  for  centuries,  existed,  and  this  still  con- 
tinued in  the  time  of  Christ.  "The  Jews  have  no 
dealings  with  the   Samaritans." 

At  this  time  the  province  of  Judea  was  gov- 
erned by  the  Roman  procurator,  Pontius  Pilate, 
whose  official  residence  was  at  Caesarea,  the  Ro- 
man capital  of  the  province,  although  he  spent 
not  a  little  of  his  time  at  Jerusalem.  A  promi- 
nent part  of  his  responsibility  was  to  look  after 
the  Roman  taxes.  These  were  "farmed  out"  to 
speculators  who  bought  the  right  to  collect  them. 
They  were  gathered  by  men  who  were  called 
"publicans,"  who,  in  case  they  were  their  own 
countrymen,  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  traitors 
or  apostates.  They  were  usually  drawn  from 
the  most  unscrupulous  classes,  and  "graft," 
as  a  rule,  was  practiced  by  all  of  them.  But  in 
addition  to  his  fiscal  duties,  the  procurator  had 
military  and  judicial  functions  as  well.  As  a 
judge,  he  had  the  power  of  life  and  death — ap- 
peal to  the  emperor  being  granted  only  in  the 
case  of  Roman  citizens,  as  of  Paul  at  Cassarea. 
The  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  sentence  any  one  to 
death  without  the  approval  of  the  Roman  official 
at  the  head  of  the  province. 

An  important  feature  of  the  political  condi- 
tions in  Palestine  at  the  time  of  Christ  pertained 
to  the  High  Council  of  the  Jews,  or  the  Sanhe- 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        39 

drin,  and  the  parties  composing  it.  In  addition 
to  various  administrative  functions,  it  had  come 
to  be  the  supreme  court  for  the  trial  of  all  cases 
of  importance,  civil,  criminal,  religious,  under  the 
Mosaic  law.  This  body,  through  the  two  political 
parties  which  composed  it,  the  Pharisees  and  the 
Sadducees,  exerted  an  important  political  as  well 
as  religious  influence.  It  was  made  up  of 
seventy-one  members,  who  were  men  of  pure  He- 
brew descent.  The  judgment  of  the  Sanhedrin 
was  final  except  in  capital  cases.  This  explains 
why,  after  Christ  was  condemned  by  this  Council, 
the  consent  of  Pilate  must  be  secured  before  he 
could  be  put  to  death. 

Such  in  general  were  the  historical  and  political 
conditions  in  the  Roman  Empire  and  in  Palestine 
at  the  time  of  Christ. 

RELIGIOUS  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE 

We  turn  now  to  the  religious  conditions  which 
prevailed  at  this  time. 

That  which  was  fundamental  in  Jewish  thought 
and  life  was  the  Mosaic  law,  with  its  varied  re- 
quirements, moral,  civil,  ceremonial.  It  regu- 
lated the  entire  life  of  the  people,  and  its  scrupu- 
lous observance  was  the  supreme  duty  of  every 
loyal  Israelite.  Everything  centered  in  it,  all  the 
hopes  of  Israel  gathered  about  it.  God  had  given 
it  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham  at  the  hands 
of  Moses,  and  had  covenanted  to  bless  them  as  a 
people  on  condition  of  loyal  obedience  to  it.     For 


40       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

centuries  it  was  the  molding  influence  of  Jewish 
life. 

But  the  Mosaic  law,  in  its  broadest  sense,  had 
come,  in  Christ's  time,  to  include  also  the  "tradi- 
tions of  the  elders."  In  the  course  of  time  a 
body  of  men  had  arisen  whose  business  it  was  to 
copy  and  study  the  law  and  to  instruct  the  people 
in  its  requirements.  These  were  the  scribes, 
called  sometimes  in  the  New  Testament,  "teachers 
of  the  law,"  or  "lawyers."  The  opinions,  or  in- 
terpretations and  applications  of  leading  scribes, 
were  preserved  along  with  the  law,  and  at  length 
came  to  be  regarded  as  equally  sacred  with  it,  and 
of  corresponding  authority.  These  decisions  or 
precedents  pertained  to  every  imaginable  phase 
of  daily  life.  They  were  elaborated  to  an  extent 
hardly  to  be  conceived  by  us,  and  were  frequently 
of  the  most  fanciful  and  absurd  character.  To 
carry  them  all  out  was  next  to  impossible,  while 
to  the  conscientious  the  sense  of  obligation 
to  do  so  constituted  an  unbearable  burden.  A  few 
concrete  examples  will  make  this  manifest,  and 
show  how  they  tended  also  to  make  the  religious 
life  superficial,  reducing  it  to  a  mere  formal  and 
lifeless  externalism. 

Take  the  matter  of  Sabbath  observance.  This 
was  one  of  the  duties  insisted  upon  with  great  em- 
phasis. The  original  prohibition  of  work  on  that 
day  specified  but  few  things.  But  the  scribes, 
with  great  ingenuity,  had  developed  these  prohibi- 
tions   into    thirty-nine    subdivisions,   by   which   a 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        41 

large  number  of  things  in  particular  were  for- 
bidden. Some  of  these  were  plowing,  reaping, 
sowing,  binding  sheaves,  kneading,  baking,  making 
or  putting  out  a  fire.  Many  of  them  were  sense- 
less in  the  extreme.  Then  each  of  these  subdi- 
visions was  still  further  defined,  that  there  might 
be  no  mistake  as  to  their  meaning.  To  gather  a 
few  ears  of  corn,  for  instance,  on  the  Sabbath, 
was  regarded  by  the  scribes  as  reaping,  hence  was 
proscribed.  The  disciples  were  criticised  for  this 
very  thing. 

It  was  forbidden  under  the  Mosaic  law  to  carry 
a  burden  on  the  Sabbath  from  one  tenement  to 
another.  Thereupon  the  scribes  undertook  to  de- 
termine the  exact  bulk  of  what  might  be  carried, 
and  he  was  guilty  of  Sabbath  desecration  who 
carried  out  so  much  food  as  was  equal  in  weight 
to  a  dry  fig,  or  milk  enough  to  swallow,  or  ink 
enough  with  which  to  write  two  letters,  or  reed 
enough  with  which  to  make  a  pen!  If  a  woman 
looked  into  a  mirror  on  the  Sabbath,  she  might 
see  a  gray  hair  and  be  tempted  to  pull  it  out. 
To  wear  false  teeth  on  that  day  was  to  carry  a 
burden.  In  fact,  one  could  hardly  turn  around 
on  the  Sabbath  day  without  running  against  one 
of  these  Pharisaic  laws. 

But  these  scrupulous  guardians  of  the  law,  a 
large  part  of  whose  religion  seemed  to  consist  in 
seeing  to  it  that  other  people  carried  out  to  the 
letter  all  the  petty  rules  which  they  had  laid  down, 
went   even   farther.     Not   only   did   they  declare 


4a      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

what  was  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath  itself,  which 
began  on  Friday  evening,  these  prohibitions  were 
extended  to  every  transaction  which  might  pos- 
sibly lead  to  a  desecration  of  the  day.  A  tailor, 
for  instance,  was  not  to  go  out  at  twilight  on  that 
evening  with  his  needles,  lest  he  might  forget  just 
the  hour  when  the  Sabbath — our  Saturday — ^be- 
gan. Similar  prohibitions  and  regulations  were 
to  be  observed  with  reference  to  a  score  of  other 
things  equally  infinitesimal  and  absurd.  No  risk 
must  be  run  of  any  unpermissible  work  being  done 
during  the  sacred  hours  of  the  holy  day. 

Yet  some  exceptions  were  permitted  for  the 
sake  of  humanity,  or  on  account  of  some  higher 
arid  more  sacred  command.  All  transactions  nec- 
essary for  the  offering  of  sacrifices  which  the 
Temple  ritual  required,  were  allowed, — ^but,  with 
a  few  exceptions  of  this  kind,  these  Sabbath  pro- 
hibitions were  strictly  insisted  upon  for  those  who 
would  be  truly  religious.  This  accounts  for  the 
hostility  of  the  Pharisees  against  Jesus,  because 
he  healed  on  the  Sabbath. 

Even  deeper  than  the  law  of  the  Sabbath,  was 
the  influence  on  the  daily  life  of  the  manifold  and 
far-reaching  ordinances  concerning  ceremonial 
cleanness  and  uncleanness.  Not  less  than  twelve 
treatises  of  the  time  dealt  with  the  subject. 
With  each  of  the  chief  kinds  of  uncleanness,  the 
inquiry  was  raised  and  determined  as  to  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  uncleanness  was  in- 
curred, in  what  manner  and  to  what  extent  it  was 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        4S 

transferred  to  others,  what  objects  and  interests 
were  and  were  not  capable  of  contracting  unclean- 
ness,  and  what  means  and  regulations  were  re- 
quired for  its  removal.  A  main  question,  first  of 
all,  was  concerning  the  material  of  which  the  cook- 
ing utensils  was  composed,  and  next  concerning 
the  form,  whether  hollow  or  flat.  In  the  case  of 
hollow,  earthern  vessels,  the  air  in  them  con- 
tracted and  propagated  ceremonial  uncleanness, 
but  not  their  outside.  Purification  of  these  ves- 
sels could  only  result  from  their  being  broken. 
But  as  a  fraction  only  was  still  esteemed  a  vessel, 
and  was  capable  of  imparting  defilement  if  it  held 
only  enough  "to  anoint  a  little  toe  with,"  it  is 
plain  to  see  how  thorough  the  breaking  must  be  in 
order  to  eff*ect  its  purification.  Of  wooden, 
leather,  bone,  and  glass  vessels,  the  flat  ones  were 
susceptible  of  defilement.  The  deep  ones  con- 
tracted defilement  in  their  atmosphere.  If  they 
broke,  they  were  clean. 

As  to  the  removal  of  defilement,  the  main  ques- 
tion was  as  to  what  water  was  adapted  to  the 
diff'erent  kinds  of  purifications,  to  the  sprinkling 
of  the  hands,  the  washing  of  utensils,  the  bath  of 
purification  for  persons.  Several  grades  of 
water  reservoirs  were  distinguished — a  pond, 
spring  water,  collected  water,  running  water.  Di- 
rections concerning  the  washing  and  correct  pour- 
ing on  to  the  hands  were  extremely  minute.  The 
question  was  also  discussed  as  to  the  vessels  from 
which  such  pouring  should  take  place,  who  should 


U      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

do  it,  and  how  far  the  hands  must  be  poured  upon. 
Repeated  allusions  in  the  Gospels  show  with  what 
zeal  all  these  enactments  were  observed  in  the  time 
of  Christ. 

To  external  correctness  of  action  the  greatest 
importance  was  attached.  Three  mementos  by 
which  every  Israelite  was  to  be  reminded  of  his 
duties  toward  God,  were  in  use.  One  of  these 
consisted  of  tassels  or  fringes  of  a  prescribed  char- 
acter, which  were  worn  at  the  four  corners  of  the 
upper  garment,  "that  ye  may  look  upon  them  and 
remember  all  the  commandments  of  Jehovah  to 
do  them."  Another  was  an  oblong  box  fixed  to 
house  and  room  doors  above  the  right  hand  or 
post,  on  which  was  written,  according  to  Deuteron- 
omy, in  twenty-seven  lines,  two  paragraphs  from 
that  book  (Deut.  6:4-9,  and  11:  7  et.  seq.)  which 
refer  to  the  duty  of  loving  God  with  all  one's  soul 
and  might,  and  of  teaching  the  words  of  his  law 
diligently  to  their  children. 

Then  there  were  the  phylacteries,  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  amulet  or  charm,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  possess  the  property  of  protecting  the 
wearer  against  evil  spirits  and  similar  malign 
influences.  This  term  was  then,  and  by  Jews  is 
still  given  to  two  small  cases  of  leather,  contain- 
ing small  rolls  of  parchment,  on  which  were  writ- 
ten certain  Old  Testament  passages,  which  were 
worn,  one  upon  the  forehead,  and  the  other  upon 
the  left  arm.  Our  Lord,  in  his  great  anti-Phari- 
saic discourse,  charges  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        45 

with  ostentation  in  their  religious  duties,  "for  they 
make  broad  their  phylacteries,  and  enlarge  the 
borders  (fringes)  of  their  garments,  and  love  the 
chief  places  at  feasts." 

Even  in  prayer  and  fasting  many  rules  had  to 
be  observed.  A  certain  prayer  was  to  be  recited 
twice  a  day  in  addition  to  the  usual  daily  prayer, 
which  was  to  be  said  morning,  noon,  and  evening. 
The  time  of  the  prayer  was  exactly  defined,  and 
various  regulations  pertaining  to  the  prayers 
themselves  and  the  manner  of  offering  them,  were 
prescribed.  It  was  a  good  custom  which  required 
the  offering  of  thanksgiving  in  connection  with 
partaking  of  food  and  drink.  But  there,  also, 
regulations  were  made  down  to  the  pettiest  de- 
tails— pointing  out  the  particular  form  to  be 
used  for  the  fruits  of  trees,  what  for  wine,  for  the 
fruits  of  the  ground,  for  bread,  vegetables,  vine- 
gar, for  unripe  fallen  fruit,  for  milk,  cheese,  eggs. 
Scholars  contended  as  to  when  this  and  when  that 
form  of  prayer  was  suitable.  In  such  circum- 
stances it  is  not  strange  that  prayer  was  de- 
graded into  a  mere  external  mechanical  perform- 
ance, without  significance,  save  that  of  fulfilling 
a  supposed  duty.  The  service  of  prayer  was 
even  sunk  so  low  as  to  become  a  manifestation  of 
vanity  and  the  cloak  of  inward  impurity.  Vital 
piety  was  largely  lost  sight  of,  and  of  course  there 
could  be  no  real  freedom  of  action. 

The  Pharisees  were  much  given  to  fasting  and 
laid  great  stress  on  its  value,  but  Christ  declared 


46      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

that  their  fasting  was  of  no  avail  if  their  hearts 
were  not  right.  Generally  they  did  their  fasting 
in  the  most  public  manner,  "to  be  seen  of  men," 
thus  to  make  a  show  of  pious  zeal  religiously, 
which  of  course  subjected  them  to  the  most  scath- 
ing rebukes  on  the  part  of  Christ. 

These  facts,  selected  from  many,  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  state  of  things  religiously  in  the  time 
of  Christ — the  lifeless  ceremonialism,  the  super- 
ficial, often  frivolous  and  meaningless  require- 
ments of  the  law,  as  then  interpreted,  with  all 
the  traditions  added.  There  were  some — a  few — 
who  took  a  more  spiritual  view  of  religious  obli- 
gation, but  for  the  most  part  the  people  were 
concerned  chiefly  with  the  Sabbath,  the  varied 
ablutions  which  were  regarded  as  necessary  to 
maintain  ceremonial  purity,  with  the  distinction 
between  ceremonially  clean  and  unclean  food,  with 
the  times  and  ways  of  fasting  and  prayer,  and 
with  the  wearing  of  fringes  and  phylacteries  on 
their  garments.  Formal  accuracy  in  fulfilling  the 
letter  of  these  requirements  was  sufficient.  There 
was  little  concern,  as  a  rule,  about  the  spirit  of 
them.  It  was  not  a  question  of  motive,  but 
of  external  act.  The  interior  or  heart  life  was  of 
little  or  but  secondary  concern.  So  the  religious 
life  of  the  people  became  largely  externalized  and 
paralyzed.     Inward  piety  was  smothered. 

Yet  as  a  result  of  all,  many  were  led  to  long  for 
some  way  of  deliverance  from  these  intolerable 
burdens,  at  least  were  prepared  to  appreciate  the 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        4*7 

glad  tidings  which  Christ  announced,  which  did 
away  with  these  exacting  requirements,  and  made 
the  great  inner  and  comprehensive  principle  of 
love — ^love  to  God  and  love  to  man — the  one  su- 
preme law  for  every  one.  Jesus,  of  course,  had 
no  sympathy  with  these  extreme  views  and  prac- 
tices, and  more  than  once  told  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  that  by  their  endless  and  fanciful  in- 
terpretations and  applications  of  the  law,  they 
were  destroying  its  real  purpose.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  their  "traditions"  were  no  part  of  the 
law  proper,  and  had  no  binding  force.  It  was 
Jesus'  ignoring  of  them  in  his  teachings  and  prac- 
tice which  started  the  opposition  of  the  leaders, 
and  led,  ultimately,  to  his  condemnation  and  death. 

The  views  which  prevailed  in  Christ's  time  in 
regard  to  great  doctrinal  subjects  constituted  an 
important  feature  of  the  background  of  his  teach- 
ings. Many  of  his  conversations  with  his  dis- 
ciples and  many  of  the  controversies  which  he  car- 
ried on  with  his  critics,  turned  upon  points  of 
current  opinion  on  these  questions.  Their 
thought  of  God,  for  instance,  was  far  wide  of  the 
truth,  as  he  presented  it.  To  them,  God  was  afar 
off,  remote  from  the  world ;  too  holy  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  it  directly,  or  even  with  the  peo- 
ple in  it,  the  gap  between  being  bridged  over  by 
angels  or  other  intermediaries,  and  all  his  acts 
were  performed  by  his  representatives  rather  than 
himself.     It  was  declared  that  the  law  was  given 


48      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  Moses  at  the  hands  of  angels.  God  was  par- 
tial to  the  Jewish  nation,  they  were  his  people  in 
a  peculiar  and  exceptional  sense,  not  from  the  fact 
of  a  great  mission  entrusted  to  them,  but  on  their 
own  account.  The  New  Testament  declaration 
that  God  is  no  respecter  of  persons  was  in  direct 
contradiction  to  this  idea.  Furthermore,  those 
who  would  worship  him  did  not  enter  into  vital 
communion  with  him,  but  performed  their  round  of 
tasks  and  ceremonies,  he  having  prescribed  in  de- 
tail all  that  men  were  to  do.  Religious  duty,^ 
hence,  to  them,  was  literally  to  carry  out  these 
commandments.  Having  done  this,  they  had  per- 
formed the  "good  works"  of  the  law,  and  nothing 
more  was  required  of  them.  Everything  in  the 
religious  life  was  thus  formal,  legal,  prescribed. 
Such  views  as  these  naturally  tended  to  the  virtual 
exclusion  of  the  living  presence  of  God  among 
men  and  the  reality  of  his  grace,  and  the  denial  of 
the  great  truth  that  religion  is  primarily  a  thing 
of  the  inner  life,  of  disposition,  motive,  a  certain 
attitude  of  mind  and  heart  and  purpose.  God's 
fatherhood  had  to  do  with  the  race  or  nation,  not 
with  the  individual  as  Christ  so  constantly  and  em- 
phatically affirmed.  Salvation  with  the  Jews  was 
practically  by  merit.  Righteousness  consisted  in 
the  doing  of  the  commandments,  which  were 
thought  to  lay  main  stress  upon  expiations  and 
ritual  requirements.  The  belief  that  they  had 
perfectly  fulfilled  the  requirement  of  the  law  was 
not  at  all  uncommon  among  the  people.     In  such 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        49 

a  case  nothing  could  properly  be  charged  against 
one.  If  there  was,  if  there  had  been  failure  to 
render  what  was  due  to  God,  various  acts,  like  re- 
pentance, suffering,  alms  giving,  were  thought  to 
have  atoning  significance.  By  such  means  the  ac- 
count with  him  was  balanced. 

"No  contrast  could  be  greater  than  that  be- 
tween Jesus'  teaching  concerning  religion  and  this 
Pharisaic  theory.  He  taught  that  trust  is  what 
God  requires,  that  the  humble  and  teachable  dis- 
position is  what  is  most  pleasing  to  him.  Men 
do  not  climb  up  into  God's  favor  by  works  of 
righteousness  or  ceremonial  performances  which 
they  do,  but  they  receive  his  salvation  as  a  gift 
of  pure  grace." 

The  Jewish  ideas  of  the  kingdom  of  God  and 
of  the  Messiah  were  also  far  wide  of  the  mark. 
They  looked  forward  to  a  golden  age  in  the  fu- 
ture, but  in  their  conception  this  had  primarily 
to  do  with  both  political  and  material  prosperity. 
Whatever  view  may  have  been  entertained  in  times 
preceding,  this  was  the  dominant  thought  in  the 
time  of  Christ.  The  prophetic  references  to  the 
nation's  prosperity  and  glory  in  the  coming  age 
were  interpreted  with  a  crude  literalism.  The 
kingdom  to  come  was  a  renewed  and  triumphant 
Israel.  The  nation,  humiliated  and  suffering 
under  Roman  oppression,  thought  only  of  deliver- 
ance, and  the  glorious  future  kingdom  to  which 
they  looked  forward  meant  freedom  and  power, 
Israel  becoming  the   great   ruling  power  of  the 


60      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

earth,  with  Jerusalem  for  its  capital.  Naturally 
the  Jewish  conception  of  the  Messiah  corre- 
sponded with  this  material  view  of  the  kingdom. 
He  was  to  usher  in  this  new  era  and  be  a  worldly 
ruler  or  prince.  It  was  expected  that  God  would 
intervene  to  bring  all  this  about,  and  this  by 
startling  supernatural  manifestations.  Thus  not 
only  had  the  doctrine  of  the  kingdom  become  ma- 
terial and  worldly,  their  thought  of  the  coming 
Messiah  had  in  like  manner  become  worldly  and 
political. 

Traces  of  these  ideas  of  the  kingdom  and  the 
Messianic  King  are  found  throughout  the  New 
Testament,  Christ's  own  disciples  even  holding  to 
them.  When,  after  the  resurrection,  they  asked 
him:  "Wilt  thou  at  this  time  restore  the  king- 
dom to  Israel?" — this  is  what  was  meant,  viz: — 
to  establish  the  nation  in  strength  and  prosperity 
by  overthrowing  the  power  which  was  holding 
them  in  subjugation.  One  of  them  desired  to  sit 
on  his  right  hand,  another  on  his  left,  in  this  ma- 
terial kingdom. 

With  a  knowledge  of  some  of  these  leading  doc- 
trinal views  which  were  current  in  Christ's  time, 
we  are  enabled  to  appreciate  the  better,  by  con- 
trast, the  spiritual  views  which  he  sought  to  in- 
culcate. From  the  nature  of  the  case  he  could 
not  do  otherwise  than  oppose  them,  and  thus  an- 
tagonize those  who  held  them.  Yet  it  was  always 
in  the  constructive  way  of  presenting  the  positive 
truth  to  take  their  place. 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        51 

JEWISH  INSTITUTIONS 

The  Temple  was  located  on  the  east  side  of 
the  city,  and  faced  to  the  east.  It  was  the  center 
of  most  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies  provided  in 
the  Mosaic  law.  It  was  surrounded  by  chambers 
and  apartments  which  were  more  extensive  than 
the  Temple  itself.  Outside  were  spacious  courts 
of  various  names. 

The  outermost  court,  called  the  Court  of 
the  Gentiles,  was  said  by  some  to  have  covered 
fourteen  acres  or  more.  It  was  surrounded  by  a 
high  wall  and  was  entered  by  six  gates.  It  com- 
pletely surrounded  the  Temple  and  all  the  other 
courts.  It  might  be  entered  by  persons  of  all  na- 
tions, but  it  was  death  to  anyone  not  a  Jew  to  ad- 
vance beyond  it,  and  notices  to  this  effect,  written 
in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  were  conspicuously 
posted.  Guards  were  stationed  at  the  entrance  to 
the  next  court  to  the  west  to  see  that  this  regula- 
tion was  strictly  complied  with.  It  was  from 
this  outer  court  that  Jesus  drove  the  men  who  had 
established  a  cattle  market  there  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  those  who  came  from  a  distance  with 
sacrifices.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  "porch,"  or 
covered  walk.  The  one  on  the  east  or  front  side 
was  called  "Solomon's  Porch." 

The  next  court  west  was  the  Court  of  the 
Women,  so  called  because  Jewish  women,  as  well 
as  Jewish  men,  could  enter  it.  It  was  also  called 
the  Treasury.     The  gate  leading  into  this  court 


52      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

was  the  "Beautiful  Gate"  as  it  was  called.  Here 
the  Pharisee  and  the  publican  were  supposed  to 
have  come  up  to  pray,  and  hither  the  lame  man, 
after  he  was  healed,  followed  Peter  and  John. 
The  Court  of  Israel  was  directly  west  of  this 
Court  of  the  Women.  It  was  reached  by  a  flight 
of  fifteen  steps.  The  rock  on  which  the  Temple 
stood  rose  in  height  toward  the  westward.  Only 
the  men  of  Israel  were  allowed  in  this  court.  Here 
they  stood  in  reverent  silence  while  their  sacrifices 
were  burning  in  the  inner  court,  and  while  the  serv- 
ices of  the  sanctuary  were  being  performed.  The 
Court  of  the  Priests  came  next.  It  was  raised 
somewhat  above  that  of  Israel.  Within  it  stood 
the  brazen  altar  on  which  sacrifices  were  consumed. 
It  was  accessible  to  other  Israelites  than  the 
priests  only  for  certain  special  purposes  con- 
nected with  the  sacrifices. 

From  the  Court  of  the  Priests  the  ascent  to 
the  Temple  was  by  a  flight  of  twelve  steps,  which 
led  to  the  sacred  vestibule  or  porch,  which  ex- 
tended across  the  front  of  the  structure.  The 
Temple  itself  was  by  no  means  a  large  structure — 
only  ninety  by  thirty  feet.  In  it  were  the  Holy 
and  Most  Holy  Places,  which  were  separated  by 
an  impervious  veil.  The  former  was  thirty  by 
sixty  feet,  and  forty-five  feet  high.  Here  were 
the  golden  altar  of  incense,  a  table  for  the  shrew- 
bread,  and  a  golden  candlestick.  The  Most  Holy 
Place,  or  Holy  of  Holies,  was  a  square  room 
thirty  by  thirty  feet,  into  which  the  High  Priest 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND        53 

alone  entered,  and  that  only  once  a  year,  on  the 
Great  Day  of  Atonement.  In  the  midst  of  the 
Most  Holy  Place  of  Solomon's  Temple  the  sacred 
Ark  was  placed.  Connected  with  the  Temple  in 
Roman  times,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
Temple  area,  was  the  strong  castle  called  the 
Tower  of  Antonio,  with  its  various  courts  and 
fortifications.  A  Roman  garrison  was  stationed 
here.  Its  presence  was  of  special  importance  at 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  festivals.  Paul,  when  res- 
cued from  the  infuriated  mob  which  had  dragged 
him  out  of  the  Temple,  was  taken  into  this  castle. 

The  daily  worship  of  the  Temple  was  conducted 
by  the  Priesthood,  a  body  of  men  specially  set 
apart  for  that  purpose.  Each  of  its  twenty-four 
divisions  officiated  a  week  at  a  time.  The  Levites 
were  a  subordinate  class  of  officials,  really  as- 
sistants to  the  priests.  They  performed  various 
minor  offices,  including  the  care  of  the  Temple, 
and  slaying  and  preparing  the  sacrifices.  But 
only  the  priests  were  permitted  to  minister  at  the 
altar  and  within  the  sanctuary. 

The  offering  of  sacrifices  was  a  custom  which 
came  down  from  the  earliest  time.  The  Mosaic 
law  simply  gave  directions  with  reference  to  a 
practice  which  was  already  in  existence.  In  the 
Temple,  sacrifices  were  offered  in  behalf  of  the 
people  by  officiating  priests.  Their  main  work 
indeed  was  that  of  sacrifice  and  its  attendant  serv- 
ices. Public  sacrifices  were  offered  in  the  name  of 
the  people  and  were  purchased  with  a  part  of 


54i      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

the  people's  own  gifts.  Private  sacrifices  were 
those  in  which  private  individuals  only  were  con- 
cerned. A  fire  was  kept  burning  on  the  altar  con- 
tinually. The  one  place  appointed  in  the  law  for 
the  offering  of  sacrifices  by  the  Jews  was  around 
the  one  altar  of  the  only  true  God  in  the  Temple. 
Yet  though  established  by  divine  appointment, 
they  were  at  best  only  typical.  They  were  in- 
capable of  themselves  of  purifying  the  soul  or 
atoning  for  sin.  They  foreshadowed  the  true 
sacrifice  to  come,  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  would 
really  take  away  the  sins  of  the  world.  Accord- 
ingly, when  Christ  came,  all  these  material  sacri- 
fices were  set  aside  as  no  longer  needed.  He  made 
an  offering  of  himself  once  for  all. 

There  were  three  great  annual  feasts  with  the 
Jews.  The  Feast  of  the  Passover  commemorated 
the  exodus  from  Egypt  and  was  celebrated  by  eat- 
ing a  slain  lamb  with  unleavened  bread.  It  con- 
tinued seven  days.  The  deliverance  which  it  com- 
memorated was  a  type  of  the  great  salvation  or 
deliverance  from  sin  achieved  for  men  by  Christ 
through  his  sacrifice.  The  Feast  of  Pentecost 
marked  the  completion  of  the  corn  harvest,  and 
according  to  the  later  Jews,  the  giving  of  the 
law  as  well.  It  was  at  the  time  of  a  Pentecostal 
feast  that  the  Spirit  was  poured  out  upon  the 
disciples.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  commemo- 
rated the  life  in  the  wilderness.  It  was  also  the 
harvest  home  at  the  close  of  the  year,  an  expres- 
sion of  thanksgiving  for  harvest,  the  people  living 


NEW  TESTAMENT  BACKGROUND       55 

in  booths  meanwhile.  There  were  various  other 
and  lesser  festivals  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
other  important  events  of  Jewish  history,  but 
these  were  the  main  ones.  Fast  days  were  also 
observed  from  time  to  time. 

We  have  now  covered,  in  a  cursory  way,  some 
of  the  main  features  of  the  New  Testament  back- 
ground, indicating  the  general  historical  and  po- 
litical situation  both  in  the  Roman  Empire  and  in 
Palestine;  have  explained  somewhat  in  regard  to 
the  thought  and  life  of  the  people  religiously — 
the  Mosaic  law  with  its  varied  requirements,  in- 
cluding the  "traditions";  also  in  regard  to  the 
institutions  of  the  Jewish  people,  the  Temple  and 
its  courts,  the  priesthood,  sacrifices,  feasts. 
With  a  clear  grasp  of  these  facts,  let  one  read 
afresh  the  Gospel  narratives,  and  he  will  be  sur- 
prised at  the  new  light  which  will  be  thrown  upon 
many  of  the  references  to  them  and  to  the  utter- 
ances of  Christ  himself.  Indeed  it  is  now  gener- 
ally recognized  among  students  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment that  for  a  right  understanding  of  it,  it  is 
necessary  to  become  familiar  with  all  these  things, 
which  constitute  a  background,  from  which  the 
life  and  work  and  teachings  of  Christ  and  the 
apostles  stand  out  in  bold  relief. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  FORERUNNER 

From  ancient  times  it  has  been  the  custom  with 
oriental  monarchs,  when  about  to  travel  through 
any  part  of  their  dominions,  to  send  heralds  be- 
fore them  to  announce  their  coming  and  to  see 
that  the  roadways  over  which  they  were  to  pass 
were  in  order.  All  obstacles  must  be  removed, 
rough  places  be  made  smooth.  If  no  roadway  ex- 
isted, one  had  to  be  made,  even  if,  for  the  purpose, 
it  required  the  filling  of  valleys  and  the  leveling 
of  hills  and  mountains.  In  this  way  an  easy  and 
pleasant  highway  was  provided  for  the  royal  trav- 
elers. This  custom  is  alluded  to  in  Isaiah  xl,  3,  4. 
— "The  voice  of  one  that  crieth.  Prepare  ye  in 
the  wilderness  the  way  of  Jehovah;  make  level  in 
the  desert  a  highway  for  our  God.  Every  valley 
shall  be  exalted,  and  every  mountain  and  hill  shall 
be  made  low:  and  the  uneven  shall  be  made  level, 
and  the  rough  places  a  plain."  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament this  passage  is  applied  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist as  the  herald  or  forerunner  of  the  Messiah. 


The  coming  of  a  Messianic  king  to  inaugurate 

a  better   state   of  things,    a   new   and  righteous 
56 


THE  FORERUNNER  57 

kingdom,  a  golden  age  in  very  truth,  for  their 
race,  had  long  been  anticipated  among  the  Jews. 
Their  Scriptures  had  for  centuries  foreshadowed 
it.  Such  an  expectation,  indeed,  was  deeply  em- 
bedded in  the  very  structure  of  their  religion. 
The  character  of  this  coming  One  and  the  nature 
of  his  mission  may  not  have  been  fully  under- 
stood, was  sometimes  even  definitely  misappre- 
hended— it  certainly  was  at  this  time — but  the 
fact  itself  of  a  promised  Messiah  had  long  been 
the  hope  of  the  Jewish  race.  Now  at  length  the 
time  for  the  realization  of  this  hope  was  at  hand. 
The  fullness  of  time  for  it  had  come. 

But  in  order  to  arouse  and  quicken  the  con- 
sciences of  men  at  the  time  and  lead  to  a  spiritual 
preparation  for  this  event,  an  immediate  precursor 
or  herald  was  needed.  To  accomplish  this  special 
work,  to  discover,  as  it  were,  and  point  out  the 
Messiah  to  men,  was  the  exalted  function  of  John 
the  Baptist.  Not  much  is  known  of  him,  not 
much  was  recorded,  yet  even  the  fragmentary  ac- 
counts which  have  come  down  to  us  in  the  New 
Testament  are  sufficient  to  set  before  us  a  unique 
and  mighty  personality,  and  to  aff^ord  a  clear  in- 
sight into  his  motives  and  spirit. 

Before  this  time,  dark  days  had  come  upon  the 
Jewish  people.  The  civil  authority  had  passed 
entirely  out  of  their  hands,  and  they  were  suffer- 
ing under  a  galling  subserviency  to  the  Roman 
power.     Those  who  had  been   appointed  to  rule 


68      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

over  them  were  not  men  to  command  their  respect. 
Lawlessness  prevailed  in  the  land  to  an  unusual 
degree.  The  religion  of  the  people  had  degene- 
rated into  a  lifeless  formalism.  Routine  observ- 
ance of  rites  and  ceremonies  had  come  to  hold  the 
chief  place  in  their  thought,  while  the  weightier 
matters  of  moral  obligation  and  righteous  con- 
duct had  been  relegated  to  the  background.  Es- 
pecially was  this  the  case  with  the  religious  leaders 
of  the  people.  The  religion  of  the  Pharisees, 
though  professedly  one  of  devotion  to  the  law  of 
Moses,  was  without  vitality  or  power — a  vain  and 
empty  thing.  With  the  Sadducees,  the  material- 
ists of  that  age,  there  had  come  to  be  practical 
skepticism  concerning  spiritual  verities,  and  the 
reality  and  certainty  of  the  future  life.  Others 
still  went  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and,  hating  the 
world,  withdrew  from  society  and  lived  an  ascetic 
life  in  the  desert.  With  the  perverted  views  which 
these  latter  entertained,  their  spiritual  condition 
was  anything  but  wholesome.  Thus  on  every  hand 
there  were  depression,  unrest,  dissatisfaction. 
There  was  no  hope  to  cheer  the  political  aspira- 
tion of  the  people :  for  the  spiritually  minded  there 
had  never  been  a  darker  time. 

But,  just  as  when  it  was  darkest  with  the  chosen 
people  in  Egypt,  a  brighter  day  was  about  to 
dawn,  and  just  as  when,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
church  had  become  corrupt  and  religion  had 
pretty  much  lost  its  significance,  a  new  and  better 
era  was  soon  to  appear — so  in  this  depressed  con- 


THE  FORERUNNER  69 

dition  of  affairs  among  the  chosen  people,  when 
despair  was  fast  settling  down  upon  the  more  ear- 
nest spirits  among  them,  it  was  but  the  darkness 
preceding  the  dawn.  Better  things  were  in  store. 
The  Sun  of  Righteousness  was  about  to  rise.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  a  voice  began  to  be  heard  in 
the  wilderness,  calling  upon  men  everywhere  to 
turn  from  their  sins  and  make  ready  for  the  king- 
dom of  God  which  was  declared  to  be  near  at  hand, 
and  for  the  advent  of  him  who,  in  the  highest 
and  truest  sense,  was  to  be  the  nation's  de- 
liverer and  the  Savior  of  the  world.  This  voice  was 
that  of  John  the  Baptist,  for  whom,  even  at  his 
birth,  in  view  of  the  unusual  circumstances  con- 
nected with  it,  a  great  and  notable  career  had  been 
foretold.  Early  in  life  he  had  consecrated  him- 
self to  God,  and  later  had  retired  to  the  wilderness 
of  Judea,  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  to  live  in  solitude 
and  in  communion  with  the  Most  High.  He  made 
no  merit  of  his  self-denial  and  his  austere  life,  as 
did  the  ascetics  of  his  time,  but,  as  a  man  of 
thought,  devout  and  prayerful,  he  doubtless  medi- 
tated deeply  upon  the  things  of  God,  upon  the 
teachings  of  the  prophets,  and  upon  the  condi- 
tions then  existing  among  the  Jewish  people.  He 
perceived  clearly  the  superficial  character  of  their 
religious  life,  saw  the  need  of  radical  reformation 
before  the  favor  of  God  could  rest  upon  them, 
and  by  faith  discerned  the  near  approach  of  that 
kingdom  of  righteousness  and  truth,  and  of  the 
King  himself  who  was  to  inaugurate  it,  of  which 


60      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

the  ancient  prophets  had  borne  witness,  but  for 
which  he  clearly  saw  there  was  no  adequate  prepa- 
ration. 

Then  he  began  to  declare  his  convictions.  The 
day  of  Jehovah  was  at  hand.  The  long  expected 
Messiah  was  about  to  appear  and  sit  in  judgment 
upon  all.  Every  unworthy  member  of  the  commun- 
ity was  to  be  cut  off,  the  chaff  to  be  separated 
from  the  wheat.  There  was  no  time  to  be  lost. 
Only  by  repentance,  radical  and  thorough,  could 
the  divine  favor  be  hoped  for,  and  men  were  called 
upon  to  prepare  for  the  new  day  by  abandoning 
their  sinful  ways  and  committing  themselves  to 
lives,  of  righteousness.  So  intense  was  John's 
earnestness  and  with  such  power  did  he  speak,  that 
reports  of  him  spread  like  wildfire  among  the  peo- 
ple, who  began  to  flock  from  all  directions  to  hear 
him.  All  Jerusalem,  we  read,  and  Judea,  all 
classes  and  conditions  of  men — Pharisees,  Saddu- 
cees,  scribes,  soldiers,  priests,  publicans — went  out 
for  this  purpose  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  which 
was  the  scene  of  his  preaching.  Here,  also,  he 
performed  the  baptismal  rite  for  such  as  desired 
in  this  way  to  signify  their  purpose  of  personal 
reformation  and  of  dedication  of  themselves  to 
the  new  kingdom.  Washing  with  water  was  a 
natural  and  beautiful  symbol  of  spiritual  cleans- 
ing, and  whatever  may  have  been  its  original  ap- 
plication and  import,  John  appropriated  it  for 
his  own  use  in  preparing  men  for  the  new  relation- 
ship. 


THE  FORERUNNER  61 

With  his  coarse  wilderness  garb  and  his  leathern 
girdle,  John's  appearance  must  have  been  strik- 
ing. This,  however,  was  incidental.  With  burn- 
ing earnestness  he  declared  the  message  which 
possessed  his  soul.  With  startling  boldness  he  re- 
buked the  sinful  practices  of  those  who  came  to 
hear  him.  He  was  fearless  in  his  denunciations 
of  high  and  low  alike.  The  hearts  of  men  were 
laid  bare.  The  hypocrisies  of  their  religious 
leaders  were  exposed.  Men  listened  with  accus- 
ing consciences  until  they  were  overwhelmed  with  a 
sense  of  condemnation  and  guilt.  Such  preach- 
ing had  not  been  heard  in  the  land  for  generations. 
Not  since  the  prophets — Elijah,  Amos,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah — had  anyone  ventured  thus  to  probe 
the  moral  condition  of  the  people.  What  John 
demanded  was  that  his  hearers  should  stop  sinning 
and  live  righteously.  It  was  not  a  question 
whether  they  were  descendants  of  Abraham. 
Mere  hereditary  descent  carried  no  moral  quality 
with  it,  and  would  avail  nothing  as  a  protection 
against  the  judgments  which  were  to  come  upon 
the  guilty.  Righteousness  alone  would  entitle 
men  to  recognition  in  the  coming  kingdom. 

More  than  this,  John  declared  that  the  King 
himself  was  about  to  appear.  Some  of  his  hear- 
ers wondered  if  he  might  not  himself  be  the  long 
expected  One,  but  he  promptly  disclaimed  any 
such  distinction.  His  mission  was  simply  that  of 
a  forerunner.  The  One  to  come  after  him,  whose 
shoes'  latchet  he  felt  himself  unworthy  to  stoop 


62      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

down  and  unloose,  was  far  mightier  and  holier 
than  he.  John  had  baptized  with  water,  but  this 
coming  One  would  baptize  with  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  with  fire.  Such  an  announcement  must  have 
powerfully  stirred  the  hearts  of  all  who  heard  it. 
A  profound  impression  was  certainly  made. 
Whether  John  spoke  simply  out  of  a  deep  and 
long-standing  conviction  which  had  gradually 
come  to  him,  or,  in  addition,  was  borne  along  in 
his  thought  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  at 
the  moment  beyond  what  he  personally  knew,  we 
need  not  inquire. 

As  he  worked  his  way  northward  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  the  news  of  his  work  reached  Nazareth. 
Jesus,  recognizing  him  as  a  messenger  of  God, 
went  out  to  hear  him.  Although  he  and  John  were 
kinsmen  by  birth,  they  had  been  entirely  separated 
by  the  circumstances  of  their  lives,  and  probably 
had  not  known  each  other.  At  any  rate,  John 
did  not  recognize  Jesus  when  he  came  to  the 
Jordan.  Yet  there  was  something  in  the  latter's 
appearance  which  at  once  arrested  the  Baptist's 
attention.  With  a  prophet's  insight  he  read  the 
character  of  Jesus  at  a  glance.  In  other  cases 
he  may  have  refused  to  administer  baptism  be- 
cause repentance  did  not  seem  to  be  sufficiently 
deep  and  thorough.  In  this  case  he  hesitated  be- 
cause the  applicant  impressed  him  as  one  who  had 
no  need  of  the  rite.  John  finally  yielded  to  the 
request  of  Jesus,  to  whom  it  seemed  best  in  this 
way,   as   he   himself  expressed   it,   to   "fulfill   all 


THE  FORERUNNER  63 

righteousness."  He  would  thus  identify  himself 
with  the  movement  which  the  Baptist  had  inaug- 
urated. 

It  was  in  this  connection  that  it  was  made 
known  to  John  the  Baptist  that  the  One  before 
him  was  none  other  than  the  great  Successor  whom 
he  had  been  heralding,  and  for  whom  he  was 
simply  preparing  the  way.  It  had  already  been 
intimated  to  him  that  the  One  upon  whom  he 
should  see  the  spirit  of  God  descending  and  re- 
maining— a  sign  evidently  intended  for  himself 
alone — the  same  was  the  One  who  was  to  baptize 
with  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  sign  now  appeared. 
When  Jesus  came  out  of  the  water,  the  heavens 
opened,  and  John  beheld — perhaps  in  vision  only 
— the  Spirit  descending  on  him  in  the  form  of  a 
dove.  At  the  same  time  a  voice  from  heaven  was 
heard  declaring,  "This  is  my  beloved  Son  in  whom 
I  am  well  pleased."  It  was  a  moment  of  revela- 
tion to  John,  as  it  was  a  transfiguring  moment  to 
Jesus  himself — the  point  of  transition  from  a 
private  life  to  an  official  career.  It  is  hardly 
probable  that  all  this  took  place  in  a  way  to  be 
recognized  by  the  assembled  multitude,  but  it  was 
at  least  made  plain  to  John  and  Jesus.  To  the 
latter  it  was  a  formal  consecration  to  his  work,  an 
initiation  into  it.  Whatever  may  have  been  his 
thought  before,  whether  or  not  he  had  experienced 
a  growing  conviction  as  to  the  mission  that  was 
before  him — as  it  would  seem  likely  that  he  must 
have  done — now,  at  least,  under  the  illumination 


64      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

of  the  Spirit  who  had  been  imparted  to  him  with- 
out measure,  the  full  significance  of  his  mission 
burst  upon  him.  John  had  been  his  discoverer, 
the  first  to  recognize  the  Messianic  King,  but  for 
the  present  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  a  public 
declaration  of  his  Messianic  function,  or  for 
John  publicly  to  point  him  out  to  men. 

It  was  probably  not  long  after  the  baptism  of 
Jesus  that  a  deputation  of  officials  from  Jeru- 
salem waited  upon  John  to  ask  him  who  he  was — 
certainly  a  not  improper  inquiry  for  those  to 
make  whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the  religious  in- 
terests of  the  nation.  Was  he  the  expected  One? 
Or  was  he  Elijah  who  had  reappeared?  What 
precisely,  might  be  his  function?  John  con- 
fessed and  denied  not.  He  was  not  himself  the 
Messiah — ^he  was  simply  a  voice,  the  voice  of  one 
crying  in  the  wilderness,  calling  upon  men  to  pre- 
pare, through  personal  repentance,  for  the  com- 
ing of  One  who  was  far  greater  and  mighter  than 
he,  who  already  stood  among  them  though  they 
knew  it  not.  Thus,  with  more  definiteness  than 
before,  John  began  to  bear  testimony  to  the  One 
whom  he  had  recognized,  but  who,  as  yet,  had 
given  no  sign  to  the  world. 

It  was  shortly  after  this,  very  likely,  or  rather 
just  after  Christ's  return  from  his  wilderness 
temptation,  that  John  pointed  him  out  to  two 
of  his  own  disciples  whom  he  bade  them  to  fol- 
low. "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away 
the  sin  of  the  world."     Thus  two  of  John's  best 


THE  FORERUNNER  65 

disciples  were  constrained  to  cast  in  their  lot  with 
the  new  teacher.  It  was,  in  fact,  from  the  circle 
of  John  the  Baptist  that  the  first  nucleus  was 
formed  of  that  company  which,  later,  comprised 
the  chosen  companions  of  Jesus.  Thus  unself- 
ishly did  John  seek  to  help  on  the  new  movement; 
thus  loyal  was  he  to  the  One  whom  he  declared 
must  henceforth  increase,  while  he,  his  mission 
now  practically  ended,  must  decrease. 

Another  emphatic  testimony  John  bore  to 
Christ,  when  a  question  arose  among  his  own 
disciples  in  regard  to  purifying.  His  own  popu- 
larity was  on  the  wane,  and  that  of  Jesus  was  ris- 
ing like  an  incoming  tide.  Yet  trying  as  the 
situation  must  have  been  for  John,  he  abated 
nothing  of  his  loyalty,  and  faithfully  declared 
the  truth  in  regard  to  their  relations. 

From  this  time  on  we  hear  little  if  anything 
further  of  the  work  of  the  Baptist.  His  public 
career  was  brought  to  an  untimely  end  through 
his  imprisonment  by  order  of  King  Herod.  In 
his  outspoken  boldness,  John  had  denounced  the 
king's  guilt  in  living  unlawfully  with  his 
brother's  wife  Herodias  of  whom  he  had  become 
enamored,  and  for  which  purpose  he  had  put  away 
his  own  wife.  This  censure  may  have  been  ad- 
ministered publicly,  or  even  privately  to  the  king's 
face.  In  either  case  it  would  have  been  entirely 
in  keeping  with  John's  character.  Then  Herod 
— very  likely  under  the  prompting  of  Herodias, 
who  seems  to  have  been  more  deeply  stung  by  the 


66      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Baptist's  rebuke  than  even  Herod  himself — 
caused  him  to  be  confined  within  the  dungeon 
of  a  fortress  which  Josephus  states  to  have  been 
the  fortress  of  Machaerus,  situated  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  few 
miles  north  of  the  river  Arnon.  Here  he  lan- 
guished for  a  number  of  months.  The  trial 
which  it  must  have  been  for  one  of  his  tempera- 
ment to  be  thus  shut  off  from  active  life  among 
men  and  condemned  to  suffer  can  well  be  im- 
agined. Yet  some  privileges  seem  to  have  been 
permitted  him.  His  old  disciples  were  allowed 
free  access  to  him,  and  by  this  means  he  was  able 
both  to  keep  himself  informed  as  to  what  was  go- 
ing on  in  the  outside  world,  and  to  send  a  mes- 
sage to  Jesus. 

But  as  John  in  his  confinement  reflected  upon 
all  that  had  taken  place  and  was  even  then  going 
forward,  certain  questionings  seem  to  have  arisen 
in  his  mind.  Perhaps  it  was  the  natural  effect 
of  his  physical  depression  upon  his  mental  con- 
dition ;  or  it  may  have  grown  out  of  his  own  im- 
perfect conception  of  the  Messianic  functions,  or 
of  the  kingdom  which  was  to  be  established;  or 
it  may  have  been  from  both  these  causes  combined. 
Perhaps  he  was  disappointed  that  the  new  move- 
ment was  not  taking  on  the  shape  which  he  had 
anticipated.  If  Jesus  were  really  the  Messiah, 
why  had  not  some  demonstration  taken  place.? 
Why  did  he  not  take  to  himself  his  great  power 
and  reign?     Or,  why  was  he,  John,  left  to  pine 


THE  FORERUNNER  67 

away  in  prison,  with  no  effort  made  for  his  re- 
lease? At  any  rate,  to  reassure  himself  by  some 
direct  word  from  Jesus,  John  concluded  to  send 
two  of  his  disciples  to  him  with  a  message  of  in- 
quiry: "Art  thou  he  that  should  come,  or  do  we 
look  for  another?"  Are  you  really  the  expected 
Messiah,  or  is  there  some  misapprehension  in  re- 
gard to  it? 

Jesus  did  not  answer  the  inquiry  directly,  but 
permitted  the  messengers  to  see,  with  their  own 
eyes,  some  of  the  works  which  he  was  doing,  but 
of  which,  hitherto,  they  had  only  heard.  Then 
with  a  reference  to  the  Messianic  prediction  in 
Isaiah  lxi,  he  bade  them  take  back  to  their 
Master  the  message  that  all  these  things  which 
the  ancient  prophet  had  declared  that  the  Mes- 
siah, when  he  came,  would  do,  were  now  being 
done.  "Go  your  way  and  tell  John  the  things 
which  ye  do  hear  and  see:  the  blind  receive  their 
sight,  and  the  lame  walk,  the  lepers  are  cleansed, 
and  the  deaf  hear,  and  the  dead  are  raised  up,  and 
the  poor  have  good  tidings  preached  to  them. 
And  blessed  is  he  whosoever  shall  find  no  occasion 
of  stumbling  in  me"  (Matt,  xi,  2-6).  In  proof 
of  his  claims  he  appealed  to  what  he  was  doing. 
It  was  as  if  he  had  said,  "The  prediction  is  being 
fulfilled  to  the  letter,  and  surely  one  who  has  ful- 
filled so  much  of  the  programme  sketched  in  Isaiah, 
may  be  trusted  to  fulfill  the  rest  of  it."  We  can 
well  believe  that  such  an  answer  must  have  caused 
John's  mind  to  come  out  from  under  its  tempo- 


68      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

rary  cloud,  and  that  from  this  time  on  to  the 
end  it  was  at  rest  in  the  confidence  that  Jesus 
clearly  understood  his  Father's  will  and  plan 
concerning  him,  and  how  he  was  to  carry  it  out. 
It  was  after  the  departure  of  these  messengers 
that  Jesus  launched  forth  into  an  eulogy  of 
John's  character  and  work,  which  represents  him 
as  an  uncompromising  witness,  who  had  shrunk 
from  no  hardship  or  suffering,  whom  no  threats 
could  intimidate,  and  whose  insight  into  the 
spiritual  character  of  the  new  kingdom  placed  him 
in  the  very  front  rank  of  the  teachers  of  the  old 
dispensation.  He  was  the  latest  of  the  old 
prophets,  the  earliest  herald  of  the  new  order  of 
things,  whose  high  mission  it  was  to  announce  and 
to  introduce  the  Messiah  himself. 

The  next  and  final  scene  presented  in  the  nar- 
rative of  John,  is  the  one  preceding  and  im- 
mediately connected  with  his  martyrdom.  Herod 
himself,  notwithstanding  the  Baptist's  faithful- 
ness in  pointing  out  and  denouncing  his  sins, 
seems  to  have  borne  him  no  enduring  ill-will,  and 
would  doubtless  gladly  have  shielded  him  from 
harm.  He  did,  in  fact,  for  a  considerable  period, 
stand  between  him  and  the  persistent  hate  of 
Herodias.  But  she  bided  her  time,  and  at  last 
the  coveted  opportunity  was  presented.  It  was 
in  connection  with  a  sumptuous  feast  held  in 
honor  of  Herod's  birthday,  to  which  all  his  cour- 
tiers and  other  dignitaries  had  been  invited.     As 


THE  FORERUNNER  69 

the  feast  advanced  and  Herod  and  his  guests 
were  half  intoxicated  with  wine,  the  daughter  of 
Herodias,  young  and  beautiful,  came  in  and 
danced  before  them.  In  his  drunken  admiration 
of  her,  and  in  the  presence  of  all  the  company, 
Herod  made  the  rash  promise  that  he  would  give 
her  anything  she  might  desire,  even  to  the  half 
of  his  kingdom.  Retiring  to  confer  with  her 
mother,  the  girl  soon  returned  with  the  shocking 
request  for  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Real- 
izing what  he  had  done,  but  lacking  the  manliness 
of  character  and  the  moral  courage  to  refuse  a 
request  he  had  no  right  to  grant  or  even  to  recog- 
nize, with  a  despicable  and  cowardly  fear  of  criti- 
cism and  against  his  better  judgment,  Herod  gave 
the  order  which  brought  the  life  of  the  noble 
and  heroic  Baptist  to  a  tragic  termination.  But 
the  hate  of  the  wicked  Herodias  was  gratified. 
She  had  compassed  her  revenge. 

As  for  Herod,  we  have  evidence  from  the  nar- 
rative of  the  suffering  which  he  afterward  experi- 
enced, and  the  morbid  terrors  which  a  guilty  con- 
science forced  upon  him.  Small  and  mean  as  he 
was  as  a  man,  and  contemptible  in  many  ways,  his 
conscience  gave  some  signs  of  life.  It  is  not  im- 
possible, indeed  it  is  quite  probable,  that  he  ex- 
perienced the  deserved  retribution  of  an  ever- 
present  sense  of  having  been  the  murderer  of  this 
faithful  friend,  and  that  the  horrible  and  bloody 
sight  which  he  had  witnessed,  haunted  him  to  his 
dying  day.     History   tells   us  that  both  he  and 


70      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Herodias    came    to    a   wretched   and   disgraceful 
end  in  exile. 

While  the  name  of  John  is  perpetuated  and 
honored,  and  his  influence  continues  to  be  felt 
for  righteousness  in  the  world,  the  names  of  this 
guilty  couple  are  only  remembered  with  contempt 
and  execration,  and  only  for  their  connection  with 
John's  life.  Thus,  often,  does  history  reverse 
judgments,  and  help  to  right  the  wrongs  which 
good  men  sometimes  experience  at  the  hands  of 
those  in  exalted  station. 

II 

One  of  the  first  things  which  impresses  us  as 
we  review  the  Baptist's  life  and  character,  is  his 
faith.  The  Spirit  of  God  seems  to  have  wrought 
deeply  within  him,  as  he  ever  seeks  to  work  in  re- 
ceptive natures.  As  he  began  early  to  meditate 
upon  religious  things,  to  review  God's  dealings 
with  his  people  through  their  history;  as  he  ob- 
served the  emphasis  which  was  everywhere  in  the 
divine  Word  laid  upon  righteousness  as  the  con- 
dition of  divine  favor,  and  the  condemnation 
which  always  rested  upon  sin ;  as  he  reflected  upon 
the  prophetic  intimations  of  a  coming  King  and 
kingdom,  the  conviction  deepened  within  him  that 
God  is  in  the  aff"airs  of  this  world,  and  that  his 
kingdom  of  righteousness  and  truth  must  ulti- 
mately prevail.  This  conviction  grew  until  it  be- 
came to  him  a  mighty  and  burning  reality,  that 
that  kingdom  was  about  to  be  inaugurated  in  a 


THE  FORERUNNER  71 

deeper  and  more  definite  sense  than  at  any  time 
before,  and  that  the  one  condition  of  member- 
ship in  it  and  of  the  reception  of  its  blessings, 
was  a  righteous  life.  He  perceived  the  shallow- 
ness of  prevailing  religious  teachings  and  reli- 
gious observances,  and  the  false  security  of  those 
who  based  their  hopes  of  experiencing  God's  fa- 
vor upon  the  mere  question  of  genealogical  descent 
from  Abraham.  It  was  rather  an  individual  and 
personal  matter,  regardless  of  ancestry  or  any 
external  conditions  whatsoever,  between  each  soul 
and  God.  Thus  in  his  solitary  life  apart  from 
men,  and  unhindered  by  any  relations  of  depend- 
ence upon  them,  the  realm  of  truth  became  more 
and  more  real  to  him,  his  faith  in  unseen  things 
more  vital,  his  confidence  in  God  and  his  law  and 
its  final  triumph,  more  deep  and  abounding.  The 
things  of  God  were,  in  fact,  the  most  real  to  him 
of  all  things,  and  obedience  to  him  the  one  law 
of  his  being.  When  at  length  the  Spirit  of  God 
had  come  mightily  upon  him  and  he  felt  moved  to 
proclaim  his  convictions,  it  was  with  a  zeal  and 
earnestness  and  spiritual  force  which  produced  a 
most  profound  impression  upon  all  who  heard  him. 
His  heart-searching  plainness  of  speech,  laying 
bare  men's  sins  and  hidden  motives,  must  have 
been,  to  his  hearers,  a  foretaste  of  the  judgment 
day. 

This  fearlessness  and  courage  were  but  the 
natural  outgrowth  of  his  strong  and  vital  faith. 
With  all  his  soul  he  believed  in  God  and  in  the 


12      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

triumph  of  his  righteousness.  He  believed  in  fu- 
ture retribution  too,  and  well  might  he  urge  men 
to  repent  and  by  so  doing  flee  from  the  wrath  to 
come.  As  for  himself,  what  was  there  to  fear 
from  the  threatenings  of  men?  His  life  and  all 
his  interests  were  bound  up  in  God. 

Another  quality  in  the  character  of  John  the 
Baptist,  which  grows  upon  us  as  we  study  him,  is 
his  humility.  He  was  not  tempted  by  his  popu- 
larity to  entertain  any  higher  idea  of  his  own 
function  than  that  with  which  he  set  out.  He 
was  simply  a  forerunner  of  the  Christ.  His  one 
and  only  thought  was  to  give  prominence  to  him 
and  to  point  him  out  to  others.  "He  must  in- 
crease," he  said,  "I  must  decrease."  Although 
it  must  have  been  a  bitter  experience  to  see  the 
same  multitudes  which  had  crowded  to  listen  to 
himself  now  rallying  with  even  greater  enthusi- 
asm about  the  standard  of  another,  there  was  no 
envy,  no  jealousy,  on  his  part.  No  murmur  es- 
caped him.  He  remained  loyal  to  the  interests 
of  the  kingdom.  Though  one  of  the  boldest  of 
men,  he  was  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  humblest. 
Humility,  indeed,  was  his  distinguishing  grace. 
And  this,  too,  was  a  fruitage  of  his  faith.  Be- 
lieving in  Christ  as  he  did,  how  could  he  feel 
otherwise?  Christ's  glory  was  his  own,  and  he 
rejoiced  unselfishly  in  whatever  tended  to  pro- 
mote it. 

But  even  the  strongest  faith  sometimes  suffers 
eclipse.     Hours  of  weakness  and  depression  come 


THE  FORERUNNER  73 

to  the  greatest  and  most  devoted  men  of  God. 
It  was  so  with  the  Psalmist  at  times.  "Why  art 
thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul,  and  why  art  thou  dis- 
quieted within  me.'"'  It  was  so  with  Elijah,  hero 
of  the  faith  that  he  was — he  had  his  juniper  tree 
experience,  when  he  seemed  to  be  in  the  depths  of 
despair.  Even  our  Lord  himself  once  seemed  to 
feel  that  he  was  left  by  his  Father  to  suffer  alone. 
"My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me.''" 
So  with  many  good  men  to-day.  It  may  be  the 
result  of  physical  depression,  disease,  or  the  out- 
come of  mental  distress,  or  doubt,  or  of  deep 
sorrows  which  sometimes  come  with  overwhelming 
force  into  the  life,  but  however  that  may  be, 
periods  of  spiritual  obscuration  come  to  them. 
So  it  was  with  John  the  Baptist  after  his  strenu- 
ous public  life  in  the  interests  of  the  new  king- 
dom and  the  coming  One.  He,  too,  had  his  sea- 
son of  depression  and  doubt,  which  is  perhaps 
but  another  way  of  saying  that  he  was  only  hu- 
man. Yet  just  as  the  natural  sun  continues  to 
shine  even  when  the  clouds  from  earth  hide  his 
face  for  a  season,  so  the  Sun  of  Righteousness, 
though  his  face  may  seem  to  be  obscured  for  a 
time  for  no  other  reason  than  that  the  mists  of 
doubt,  or  trial,  or  physical  ill,  have  risen  to  hide 
it,  this  Sun  nevertheless  continues  to  shine  just 
the  same.  In  due  time,  when  these  mists  have 
cleared  away,  his  face  will  again  appear,  as  was 
no  doubt  the  experience  of  John  the  Baptist  af- 
ter his  season  of  depression. 


74>      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

The  real  greatness  of  John's  character  has  not 
always  been  appreciated.  This  may  be  owing  to 
the  meagerness  of  our  information  concerning 
him.  And  yet,  although  the  records  and  the  de- 
tails of  his  life  are  few,  the  picture  presented  of 
him  is  drawn  in  the  clearest  lines.  From  every 
point  of  view  he  is  seen  to  have  been  a  remark- 
able man.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  a  realm  of 
thought  and  effort  which  at  that  time  was  essen- 
tially new  and  untried.  He  was  great  in  his  in- 
sight into  truth,  and  although  his  views  of  the 
Messiah  and  his  kingdom  may  not  have  been  en- 
tirely developed,  they  were  far  in  advance  of  the 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  of  the  best 
thought  of  his  time.  He  was  great  in  his  char- 
acter, and  it  was  this,  primarily,  which  gave  him 
his  power.  That  there  may  have  been  imperfec- 
tions in  it  should  not  be  surprising  in  view  of  his 
intense  nature,  his  lofty  ideals,  his  devotion  to 
righteousness,  his  uncompromising  hatred  of  evil, 
and  his  impatience  with  the  hypocrisies  and  sins 
of  those  in  high  places.  But  any  defects  of  nar- 
rowness or  uncharitableness  on  his  part  may  have 
been  but  the  marks  of  crudeness  and  undevelop- 
ment,  and  do  not  seriously  detract  from  the  lofty 
grandeur  of  his  character  as  a  whole.  Especially 
was  he  great  in  his  self-effacement.  He  seemed 
to  have  no  consciousness  of  himself  apart  from 
the  cause  which  he  espoused.  His  life  was 
merged  in  that  of  his  Master. 

And  yet,  great  and  honored  as  he  was  in  char- 


THE  FORERUNNER  76 

acter  and  spirit,  and  in  his  providential  mission, 
John  stood  on  a  lower  plane  of  divine  revelation 
than  even  the  least  or  humblest  of  those  who  were 
actually  in  the  kingdom.  Not  that  he  was  not,  in 
spirit,  or  did  not  become,  a  member  of  this  king- 
dom himself,  but  that  as  to  position,  or  point  of 
view,  he  stood  on  a  lower  plane — at  the  transi- 
tion point  between  the  old  and  the  new.  He  was 
the  greatest  of  the  old  order  of  prophets,  which 
included  some  of  the  most  notable  names  in  Jew- 
ish history,  but  in  the  matter  of  privilege,  the 
humblest  in  the  new  kingdom  was  in  advance  of 
him. 

As  to  the  relation  more  particularly  of  John's 
work  to  the  great  movement  which  was  soon  to 
be  inaugurated,  and  which  was  inaugurated  even 
before  his  own  work  was  completed,  it  was  many- 
sided.  It  helped  to  break  up  the  fallow  ground 
of  Jewish  formalism  and  religious  hollowness. 
His  message  was  startling,  in  the  best  sense  sen- 
sational. The  attention  of  the  people  was  turned 
to  their  own  condition,  and  to  the  need  of  a 
radical  change  in  their  lives  not  only,  but  in  their 
thought  also,  before  the  new  and  hoped-for  bet- 
ter state  of  things  could  be  brought  about. 
There  must  be  repentance,  first  of  all,  more  deep 
and  radical  than  mere  ceremonial  purification. 
There  must  be  an  actual  breaking  off  of  sins,  a 
veritable  revolution  in  men's  lives.  More  than 
this,  there  must  be  the  uprooting  of  ideas  which 
were  fundamentally  erroneous,  like  that,  for  in- 


76      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

stance,  which  could  make  mere  genealogical  de- 
scent the  condition  of  divine  acceptance.  There 
must  be  a  new  and  higher  idea  of  the  kingdom,  too, 
and  of  the  function  of  him  who  was  to  inaugurate 
it,  than  the  merely  material  conception  which  so 
largely  prevailed  at  the  time.  All,  in  fact,  which 
the  Baptist  said  and  did,  was  called  for,  grew 
out  of  existing  conditions,  and  had  a  most  direct 
relation  to  that  which  was  to  come.  It  may  be 
questioned  indeed  whether  Jesus  would  have  had 
the  immediate  hearing  which  he  did,  had  not  it 
been  for  John's  work  of  preparation,  which  filled 
the  heart  of  the  nation  with  expectancy  and  hope. 
He  helped  to  prepare  men  for  it  mentally  and 
morally,  and  to  prepare  popular  sentiment  for  it 
also,  and  for  its  spiritual  character.  Imperfect 
as  his  work  was,  it  nevertheless  completely  fitted 
in  with  the  movement  which  followed. 


CHAPTER  V 
CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED 

Christianity,  as  a  religious  movement,  had  an 
historical  beginning.  Its  founder,  Jesus  Christ, 
stands  before  us  as  one  of  the  definite  personages 
of  human  history.  The  facts  in  regard  to  his 
race,  country,  birth,  and  times,  are  as  well  at- 
tested as  any  other  facts  of  the  period  in  which 
he  lived.  Attempts  to  account  for  the  inception 
of  this  movement — which  is  now  the  most  vital 
factor  in  the  world's  progress — ^on  any  other 
than  historical  grounds,  have  signally  failed.  In 
the  words  of  another :  "His  name  was  Jesus  ;  his 
time,  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  of  the 
Roman  period,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era;  his  race  the  Hebrew  people;  his  coun- 
try, Palestine  in  Syria;  the  place  of  his  death, 
Jerusalem;  the  Roman  procurator  at  the  time, 
Pontius  Pilate ;  the  emperor,  Tiberius."  ^ 

Says  Dr.  George  P.  Fisher  of  Yale  University : 

"The  facts  pertaining  to  Jesus  Christ  and  his  life, 
his  mighty  deeds,  remarkable  as  they  are,  his  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead,  are  all  established,  as  they  must 

*  Outlines  of  Theology— Dr.  W.  N.  Clarke,  p.  261. 

77 


78      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

be,  if  at  all,  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  facts  in  re- 
gard to  any  other  historical  character ;  as  Julius  Caesar, 
Alexander,  Socrates,  Plato,  Cromwell,  and  others, 
only  with  far  greater  certainty.  The  records  of  his 
life,  written  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  and 
to  some  extent  by  Paul,  regarded  simply  as  any  other 
historical  documents,  and  entirely  apart  from  any 
thought  of  their  relation  to  the  Bible,  as  they  must 
be  in  matters  so  momentous — considered  simply  as 
secular  or  profane  history,  on  the  same  footing  with 
it — these  records  have  been  subjected  to  the  severest 
imaginable  tests,  and  to  the  fires  of  a  remorseless 
criticism,  as  no  other  records  ever  were,  and  this  for 
ages;  and  yet  so  strong  have  they  proved  themselves 
to  be,  that  some  of  the  most  able  and  determined  op- 
ponents of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  and  of 
the  supernatural,  have  been  constrained  to  acknowl- 
edge them  as  truly  historical  and  entitled  to  credit  on 
grounds  entirely  apart  from  any  theory  of  inspira- 
tion." 

This  is  the  situation  in  regard  to  the  place  in 
human  history  of  the  Founder  of  the  great  world 
movement  of  Christianity. 

EARLY  LIFE  AND  PREPARATION  OF  JESUS 

The  advent  of  Christ  had  long  been  fore- 
shadowed by  the  Hebrew  prophets,  as  we  have 
seen.  Everything  in  the  life  of  that  people,  their 
religion  and  their  history,  pointed  forward  to 
this  event.  When  at  length  it  occurred,  it  was  at 
an  opportune  time,  both  in  the  world's  history 
and  in  that  of  the  Jews,  although,  as  a  matter  of 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       79 

fact,  but  a  very  few  devout  souls,  out  of  the 
earth's  teeming  millions,  were  prepared  to  receive 
him.  He  grew  up  in  the  midst  of  human  condi- 
tions. He  was  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judea, 
though  the  home  of  his  parents  was  in  Nazareth 
of  Galilee.  Both  Matthew  and  Luke  give  ac- 
counts of  his  birth,  the  latter  more  full  In  de- 
tails, and  expressed  with  rare  beauty  of  language. 
The  infant  Christ  was  visited  by  the  shepherds, 
also  later  by  the  wise  men  from  the  East.  When 
Herod,  concerned  for  the  stability  of  his  throne, 
heard  rumors  of  the  birth  of  a  prospective  king 
and  ordered  the  slaughter  of  all  the  male  children 
of  Bethlehem,  his  parents  fled  with  him  to  Egypt 
for  safety.  Upon  the  death  of  Herod  not  long 
after,  they  returned  to  Palestine  and  to  their 
Nazareth  home,  bringing  the  child  with  them. 
Here  the  years  of  his  youth  and  young  manhood 
were  spent. 

We  know  but  little  of  this  period  of  his  life. 
For  the  most  part  it  is  a  blank.  But  from  our 
knowledge  of  that  time,  of  that  land,  and  of  the 
customs  which  then  prevailed,  we  confidently  infer 
what  some  of  the  influences  were  in  the  midst  of 
and  by  means  of  which  his  mental  and  moral  de- 
velopment took  place. 

There  was,  first,  the  home  life  of  Jesus,  with  its 
religious  atmosphere,  even  at  a  time  when  Phari- 
saism dominated  the  life  of  the  people.  The  ex- 
ample of  godly  parents  was  constantly  before  him. 
By  them  moral  precepts  were  inculcated,  a  knowl- 


80       THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

edge  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  was  imparted,  and 
a  love  for  them  was  fostered.  Then  there  were 
all  the  influences  which  proceeded  from  the  syna- 
gogue and  its  worship,  where  for  many  years  Jesus 
heard  the  law  read  and  expounded,  and  from  the 
school  connected  with  it  which  he  doubtless  at- 
tended. There  was,  further,  the  influence  upon 
him  of  the  social  life  about  him  and  in  the  midst 
of  which  he  grew  up,  with  the  knowledge  of  hu- 
man nature  which  he  must  have  gained  from  con- 
tact with  it.  He  had  a  genuine  sympathy  with 
men,  and  when  he  entered  upon  his  ministry  he 
understood  their  nature  and  their  needs.  Added 
to  this  was  the  influence  upon  him  of  the  trade 
which  he  followed  and  the  relations  into  which  this 
naturally  brought  him  with  his  fellow  men. 
Moreover,  there  was  nature,  with  all  its  attrac- 
tions— and  these  were  many  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
Nazareth  home — whose  effect  upon  one  of  his 
temperament  and  receptivity  could  hardly  have 
been  otherwise  than  constantly  uplifting  and  en- 
nobling. In  the  truest,  fullest  sense,  he  was  a 
lover  of  it.  That  it  was  thus  enriching  to  him  is 
abundantly  confirmed  by  the  frequent  allusions 
to  scenes  in  nature  in  his  public  discourses  later. 

His  visits  to  Jerusalem  could  not  but  have  ex- 
erted a  molding  influence  upon  his  development. 
The  historical  and  religious  associations  of  places 
passed  through  on  the  way  thither,  of  the  Holy 
City  itself  and  the  Temple  services,  would  natu- 
rally  produce    a   profound   impression    and    con- 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED        81 

tribute  not  a  little  to  the  unfolding  of  his  deeper 
life.  These  impressions  would  be  strengthened 
by  every  succeeding  visit,  if,  as  is  likely,  they 
were  made  either  annually  or  only  from  time  to 
time  in  addition  to  the  one  visit  at  twelve  years 
of  age  of  which  we  have  account.  Above  all, 
there  were  the  workings  within  him  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  influencing  his  thought,  deepening  his  na- 
ture, imparting  to  him  spiritual  insight  and  by 
which  he  was  enabled  to  discern  the  real  signifi- 
cance of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  upon 
which  he  must  have  meditated  much,  but  whose 
real  meaning  many  of  the  teachers  of  his  day  ut- 
terly missed. 

Thus  the  mental  powers  of  Jesus  gradually 
unfolded,  his  character  slowly  ripened,  and  his 
spiritual  nature  developed.  He  was  subject  to 
his  parents,  an  obedient  son.  By  the  spirit  he 
manifested  he  grew  in  favor  with  both  God  and 
men.  He  owed  much  to  the  molding  influence 
of  external  agencies,  but  more  to  the  inworking 
of  God's  Spirit.  No  doubt  from  this  latter,  in 
connection  with  his  study  of  the  Scriptures,  he 
became  growingly  conscious  of  the  mission  which 
lay  before  him.  He  very  likely  came  to  recog- 
nize in  himself  the  living  counterpart  of  the  pic- 
ture of  the  coming  One — which  had  been  clearly 
outlined  by  the  ancient  prophets — who  was  to  re- 
deem his  people. 

And  yet,  with  all  his  preparation,  which  had 
been  long  continued  at  Nazareth,  something  fur- 


82      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

ther  was  still  required  before  he  should  finally  be 
fitted  for  entering  upon  his  great  mission.  This 
final  and  completing  preparation  was  now  to  take 
place. 

FORMAL  ENTRANCE  UPON  HIS  MISSION 

The  event  which  terminated  the  private  life  of 
Jesus  and  ushered  him  into  his  Messianic  work, 
was  his  baptism  in  the  Jordan.  It  was  in  con- 
nection with  this  that  his  real  character  was  made 
known  to  the  Baptist.  The  latter  had  hesitated 
to  perform  the  rite  upon  him  because  of  some- 
thing which  led  him  to  feel  that  he  had  no  need 
of  it.  Jesus'  request  for  baptism  was  finally 
yielded  to,  however,  on  the  ground  that  he  wished 
in  this  way  formally  to  fall  in  with  the  new 
movement.  When  immediately  thereafter  John 
perceived  the  Spirit  of  God  descending  and  rest- 
ing upon  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove — which  had 
already  been  made  known  to  him  as  the  sign  by 
which  the  coming  One  was  to  be  recognized — he 
knew  that  the  One  whom  he  had  been  heralding  was 
before  him.  In  confirmation,  a  voice  from  heaven 
was  heard  declaring,  "This  is  my  beloved  Son  in 
whom  I  am  well  pleased."  John  did  not,  perhaps 
could  not,  foresee  how  widely  the  Messianic  work 
of  Jesus  was  to  differ  from  his  own,  but  both  he 
and  Jesus  recognized  this  as  the  formal  call  and 
setting  apart  of  the  latter  for  his  great  mission 
and  his  spiritual  anointing  for  it.  Its  full  sig- 
nificance now  burst  upon  him.     Through  all  his 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       83 

private  life  he  had  been  moving  toward  this  very 
experience,  but  whether  or  not  he  had  fully 
grasped  the  nature  of  his  mission  before,  there 
was  no  uncertainty  in  his  mind  about  it  now. 
His  work  was  to  be  primarily  spiritual.  The 
kingdom  which  he  was  to  found  was  to  be  a  spirit- 
ual kingdom.  His  own  headship  of  it  was  to  be 
a  spiritual  headship.  This,  however,  was  dis- 
tinctly contrary  to  the  prevalent  conceptions  and 
expectations  of  his  countrymen,  contradicting 
them  at  nearly  every  point.  In  their  thought, 
the  coming  kingdom  was  to  be  essentially  political 
and  material.  It  was  in  fact  to  be,  or  rather  to 
become,  a  world  wide  empire,  with  Jerusalem  as 
its  center,  and  the  Messiah,  God's  direct  repre- 
sentative and  a  wonder  worker,  its  temporal  head. 
But  while  it  was  to  be  a  kingdom  of  God,  it  was 
yet  to  be,  primarily,  a  Jewish  kingdom. 

In  these  widely  divergent  conceptions  of  the 
kingdom  and  of  the  Messiah,  we  are  doubtless  to 
find  the  real  significance  of  the  temptation  which 
Jesus  underwent  immediately  following  his  bap- 
tism. For  the  Spirit,  we  read,  at  once  drove  or 
impelled  him  to  go  into  the  wilderness.  It  was 
the  final  stage  of  his  preparation.  It  was  to  be 
a  season  of  testing.  As  Jesus  meditated  upon  his 
new  and  strange  recent  experience  and  upon  the 
future  which  lay  before  him,  various  questions 
were  suggested.  What  course  should  he  pursue? 
How  employ  the  miraculous  powers  which  had  been 
imparted  to  him.?     Should  he  in  any  degree,  or 


84      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

how  far,  fall  in  with  the  prevailing  conceptions  as 
to  the  kind  of  kingdom  which  the  Messiah  was  to 
be  instrumental  in  founding?  Or  should  he  hold 
to  the  purely  spiritual  conception,"  which  he  fully 
believed  to  be  the  divine  thought?  To  remain 
loyal  to  the  latter  would  be  to  disappoint  the  peo- 
ple, who  would  resent  and  resist  such  a  scheme. 
On  the  other  hand,  to  take  the  leadership  of  his 
people,  put  himself  at  their  head,  and  raise  the 
standard  of  the  new  kingdom  in  the  popular  un- 
derstanding of  that  term,  would  mean  a  personal 
popularity,  a  speedy  success,  and  a  full  realiza- 
tion of  the  highest  earthly  ambition.  The  temp- 
tation as  a  whole — which  is  ascribed  to  the  Evil 
One — had  reference  to  just  this,  the  three  sepa- 
rate temptations  described  being  but  different 
phases  of  the  same  thing.  From  this  struggle, 
which  continued  for  a  period  of  forty  days,  Jesus 
emerged  completely  triumphant.  The  adversary 
was  defeated  at  every  point.  From  the  purpose 
to  remain  loyal  to  his  convictions  and  stand  for 
the  purely  spiritual,  Jesus  never  afterward  for  a 
single  moment  swerved.  He  was  ready  now,  after 
this  successful  test,  to  enter  upon  his  ministry  in 
full  view  of  its  possible  and  probable  conse- 
quences, perhaps  even  discerning  its  final  outcome 
in  his  own  death.  He  did  not  count  upon  an  easy 
or  speedy  triumph.  He  clearly  perceived  the 
obstacles,  growing  out  of  the  selfishness  and  blind- 
ness of  men,  which  were  in  the  way.  But  the  die 
was  cast.     There  was  nothing  for  him  to  do  but 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED        85 

to  go  forward  to  the  task  which  his  Father  had 
given  him  to  do,  and  to  follow  on  in  the  path  of 
obedience  to  that  Father's  will  wherever  it  might 
lead,  even,  if  necessary,  unto  death. 

From  the  very  first  Jesus  assumed,  in  his  own 
mind,  the  role  of  the  true  Messiah,  and  there  was 
nothing  on  his  part  in  his  entire  course  which  was 
inconsistent  with  this  fact.  He  was  not  recog- 
nized by  others  in  this  character,  at  once,  or  for 
a  considerable  period,  did  not  expect  to  be,  saw 
that  it  was  better,  as  things  were,  that  he  should 
not  be.  On  more  occasions  than  one,  in  fact,  he 
distinctly  attempted  to  prevent  it.  Until  the 
time  was  ripe  for  it,  he  could  better  carry  on 
his  work  incognito,  as  it  were,  save  as  the  impres- 
sion of  his  own  character  and  life  upon  individuals 
here  and  there  might  awaken  conviction  as  to  who 
he  really  was.  That  he  had  been  definitely  called 
of  God  to  the  Messianic  mission,  he  had  not  the 
slightest  doubt,  and  if  he  had  been  divinely  called 
to  it,  there  was  not  the  slightest  question  that  he 
would  be  enabled  to  accomplish  it,  however  dif- 
ficult it  might  be.  The  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
who  had  been  given  to  him  without  measure  at  his 
baptism,  would  fully  equip  him  for  his  task,  im- 
parting all  needed  girding,  insight,  wisdom, 
power. 

Whether  at  the  outset  he  had  a  perfectly  clear 
and  detailed  plan  of  procedure  in  his  mind  to 
cover  his  entire  career,  or  whether  much  was  left 
to  the  development  of  circumstances,  it  is  not  vital 


86      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  determine.  He  certainly  had  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  central  aim  of  his  ministry — to  found 
a  spiritual  kingdom  whose  seat  should  be  in  the 
hearts  of  men — and  no  doubt  the  main  features 
of  a  plan  for  realizing  that  purpose  had  been 
definitely  formulated  by  him.  He  was  not  to  de- 
pend upon  political  and  material  weapons,  but 
rather  upon  the  power  of  love  and  the  force  of 
truth.  The  passive  rather  than  the  sterner  and 
more  aggressive  virtues  were  to  be  his  reliance. 
The  kingdom  which  he  was  to  establish  was  to  be 
a  fraternity  whose  members  were  to  be  bound  to- 
gether by  a  moral  and  spiritual  bond,  with  love 
toward  himself  as  its  head.  In  general  he  would 
seek  to  promote  it  by  public  and  private  teaching, 
by  his  works,  especially  of  healing,  and  not  least 
of  all  by  his  own  example  and  spirit,  winning  men 
to  himself. 

As  for  the  future  of  this  kingdom  and  to  pro- 
mote it,  he  would  train  up  a  company  of  men 
who  should  be  specially  commissioned  to  be  its 
ambassadors.  Until  the  spiritual  nature  of  this 
kingdom  should,  in  some  degree,  have  supplanted 
in  the  popular  thought  the  prevailing  but  mis- 
taken conceptions  of  the  people,  he  would  refrain 
from  calling  attention  to  himself  as  its  divinely 
anointed  spiritual  head.  Later  he  could  do  so  to 
better  advantage.  So  in  his  earlier  ministry  he 
laid  chief  emphasis  upon  the  kingdom,  its  nature, 
and  the  conditions  of  membership  in  it,  following 
somewhat  along  the  lines  of  the  preparatory  work 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       87 

of  John.  He  knew  well  that  he  himself  would  be 
misunderstood  and  was  prepared  for  it.  Even 
his  nearest  friends  would  imperfectly  compre- 
hend him,  and  this  he  must  endure.  They  would 
be  unable  to  appreciate  his  own  explanations  of 
himself  and  his  mission  save  in  the  most  rudi- 
mentary way.  His  life  would  be  a  solitary  life 
even  in  the  midst  of  his  most  devoted  followers. 
They  would  fully  understand  him  only  after  his 
departure  from  them  when  the  Spirit  had  come 
upon  them.  But  though  unappreciated  by  men, 
he  would  have  the  companionship  of  his  heavenly 
Father,  with  whom  he  spent  whole  nights  often,  in 
communion.  His  life  was  to  be  on  a  far  higher 
plane  than  that  of  those  about  him.  But  his  vi- 
sion covered  long  ranges,  and  he  was  indifferent 
to  many  things  which  would  naturally  disturb 
others.  Even  about  his  own  success,  humanly 
speaking,  he  seemed  largely  unconcerned — the  fu- 
ture would  take  care  of  that.  His  work  was 
really  only  to  set  the  great  movement  of  the 
kingdom  in  motion.  True,  he  prepared  the  con- 
ditions and  gathered  a  nucleus  of  adherents  for 
it,  but  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  may  be  said  to 
have  given  it  only  a  start. 

So  he  lived  his  wonderful  life,  breathed  forth 
his  sweet  and  beautiful  spirit,  bore  patiently  the 
ill-treatment  and  abuse  accorded  him  by  the  Jew- 
ish leaders,  was  not  carried  away  by  the  super- 
ficial enthusiasm  of  the  people  which  from  time 
to  time  arose,  worked  miracles  in  the  interest  of 


88      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

suffering  humanity  but  never  for  the  advance- 
ment of  his  own  personal  ends,  least  of  all  to  grat- 
ify the  curiosity  of  men  for  a  sign.  He  taught 
the  loftiest  sentiments,  met  and  controverted  his 
opponents  as  they  sought  to  entangle  him  in  his 
talk,  never  for  a  moment  forgot  who  he  was, 
whence  he  came,  the  nature  and  purpose  of  his  ex- 
alted mission,  and  with  fitting  dignity  and  rare 
insight  adjusted  himself  to  the  various  exigencies 
as  they  arose.  With  a  sublime  confidence  he 
awaited  the  final  judgment  of  men.  Sometime,  it 
might  be  ages  hence,  the  whole  world  would  know 
and  recognize  him  as  its  Lord  and  King. 

While  the  general  order  of  events  in  the  life 
of  Jesus  may  be  determined  with  a  good  degree  of 
probability,  we  must  be  content  to  remain  uncer- 
tain concerning  the  place  to  be  given  to  many  in- 
cidents and  to  much  of  his  teaching.  Any 
attempt  to  arrange  an  orderly  account  of  the  way 
in  which  he  set  about  his  work  is  beset  with  diffi- 
culty. Still,  there  are  a  few  landmarks  by  which 
we  may  gain  a  sufficiently  correct  outline  for  all 
practical  purposes. 

THE  JUDEAN  MINISTRY 

The  records  of  the  earlier  work  of  Jesus,  some- 
times called  the  Judean  ministry,  are  exceedingly 
meager  and  fragmentary.  From  the  fourth 
Gospel  alone  we  learn  of  it.  It  was  confined  to 
Jerusalem  and  Judea  and  covered  perhaps  eight 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED        89 

or  nine  months.  It  was  fitting  that  the  Messiah 
should  begin  his  ministry  at  Jerusalem,  the  re- 
ligious center  of  the  land.  Here,  in  connection 
with  a  passover  feast,  he  first  publicly  presented 
himself  to  the  people  and  began  to  teach.  He 
made  no  claims.  It  would  have  been  unwise  to  do 
so  at  this  early  stage.  His  plan  seemed  rather 
to  be  to  leave  the  people  to  draw  their  own  infer- 
ences in  view  of  the  manifestation  of  himself 
which  he  made  and  the  things  which  he  did.  His 
initial  act  was  to  drive  out  the  traders  who  were 
profaning  the  holy  precincts  of  the  Temple.  This 
seems  to  have  been  performed  with  such  an  out- 
flashing  of  his  righteous  indignation  that  they 
could  but  quail  before  him.  Although  the  lead- 
ers challenged  his  authority,  he  went  steadily  for- 
ward, teaching,  working  many  "signs,"  winning 
for  himself  a  more  or  less  enthusiastic  though 
doubtless  unintelligent  following.  Although  the 
leaders  in  general  manifested  no  sympathy,  an- 
tagonism rather,  a  few  of  them  were  deeply  im- 
pressed. Among  the  latter  was  Nicodemus,  who 
came  to  him  by  night  to  inform  himself  more  fully 
as  to  his  character  and  aims.  To  him  Jesus  made 
it  plain  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was  essentially 
spiritual,  and  that  no  one  could  realize  its  privi- 
leges save  through  a  moral  change  so  radical  that 
it  could  only  be  described  as  a  new  birth. 

But  there  was  not  much  receptivity  for  spirit- 
ual truth  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  people  were 
under  the  domination  of  the  scribes  and  Phari- 


90      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

sees,  and  the  impression  made  proved  to  be  only 
superficial,  in  reality,  however  deep  it  may  have 
seemed  at  the  time.  So  Jesus  betook  himself  to 
the  country,  the  regions  round  about  Jerusalem. 
Here  the  people  were  more  impressionable,  and 
multitudes  attended  his  preaching.  The  common 
people,  I.  e.,  the  people  In  general,  we  read,  heard 
him  gladly.  So  far  as  we  can  learn,  his  work 
here  was  of  much  the  same  nature  as  that  of 
John,  who  still  continued  his  public  ministry, 
though  with  diminishing  crowds  as  compared  with 
those  which  flocked  to  listen  to  Jesus.  If  the 
latter  wrought  any  miracles  at  this  time,  we  have 
no  account  of  them.  As  to  the  real  spiritual  re- 
sults of  his  work,  they  were  no  doubt  limited. 
With  its  Intense  conservatism,  Judea  was  not 
ready  for  his  mission,  and  he  was  led  to  feel  that, 
at  present,  further  effort  In  this  region  would  be 
unwise.  The  hostile  influence,  also,  of  the  lead- 
ers at  Jerusalem  would  naturally  be  felt  outside 
the  city,  through  the  province,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent.  It  is  very  probable  that  this  fact — 
this  all-pervasive  spirit  of  prejudice  and  oppo- 
sition— had  not  a  little  to  do  with  his  determina- 
tion to  seek  the  freer  atmosphere  of  Galilee  as  the 
scene  of  his  future  labors.  Moreover,  it  was 
about  this  time  that  John  the  Baptist,  because 
of  his  plain  speaking  in  denunciation  of  the  open 
and  flagrant  sins  of  Herod  Antlpas,  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  This  also  doubtless  had  its  in- 
fluence in  determining  Jesus  to  leave  Judea,  es- 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       91 

pecially  if,  as  is  supposed,  the  Pharisees  had  any 
part  in  bringing  it  about.  He  may  have  appre- 
hended similar  treatment  for  himself  were  he  to 
remain. 

On  his  way  northward  from  Judea  to  Galilee, 
Jesus  went  by  way  of  Jacob's  well  in  Samaria. 
Here  he  had  opportunity  of  showing  his  freedom 
from  the  Jewish  prejudice  against  the  Samari- 
tans, also  against  women,  for  it  was  here  that  oc- 
curred the  incident  of  his  conversation  on  the 
water  of  life  with  the  woman  who  came  to  draw 
from  the  well.  To  her  he  made  the  first  explicit 
announcement  of  his  Messiahship.  Many  of  the 
Samaritans  believed  on  him  during  the  two  days 
that  he  was  constrained  to  remain  here.  After 
this,  in  Galilee  he  entered  upon  a  new  and  more 
advanced  stage  of  his  work. 

THE  GALILEAN  MINISTRY 

Jesus'  ministry  in  Galilee  was  characterized  by 
incessant  activity;  often  he  had  not  time  either 
to  eat  or  to  sleep.  His  fame  as  a  public  teacher 
had  preceded  him,  and  curiosity  to  see  and  to  hear 
him  was  widespread.  Great  crowds  attended 
him  wherever  he  went.  In  a  short  time  all  Gali- 
lee was  ringing  with  his  name.  Reports  of  him 
spread  also  beyond  its  borders,  and  multitudes 
from  all  the  surrounding  provinces  joined  with 
the  native  population  in  following  him  on  his 
tours  through  the  country.  Then  there  were  his 
mighty  works,  especially  in  healing  the  sick  and 


92      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

diseased  and  casting  out  evil  spirits.  Instead  of 
being*  isolated  as  before,  miracles  were  now  com- 
mon,— his  ministry  was  rich  in  them.  Many  are 
recorded,  doubtless  many  more  were  performed. 
His  preaching  here  was  less  of  the  preparatory 
order  than  in  Judea; — more  of  the  direct,  posi- 
tive, constructive  gospel. 

The  reason  of  this  great  and  widespread  in- 
terest was  not  due  to  any  declaration  on  Jesus' 
part  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  which  in  itself  would 
have  stirred  the  people  deeply.  On  the  contrary 
he,  for  the  most  part,  held  this  fact  in  reserve. 
So  grossly  materialistic  were  the  popular  expec- 
tations and  hopes  on  this  subject,  that  any  such 
declaration  as  yet  would  have  been  misinterpreted 
and  could  only  have  resulted  in  infinite  mischief. 
Until  there  was  preparation  to  receive  such  an  an- 
nouncement in  its  true  inward  and  spiritual  mean- 
ing, it  was  wiser  to  hold  it  in  abeyance.  Jesus 
prudently  withheld  the  full  disclosure  of  his 
claims  until  he  should  have  time  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions deep  and  broad  of  the  new  kingdom.  At 
the  same  time,  the  more  thoughtful  among  the 
people  could  hardly  fail  to  infer  much  from  his 
character,  his  work,  and  his  utterances,  as  to  who 
he  was,  and  this  he  did  not  discourage.  It  was, 
in  fact,  what  he  wished  them  to  do. 

That  which  in  particular  awakened  the  enthusi- 
astic interest  of  the  people  was  no  doubt  to  be 
found  in  the  nature  and  method  of  his  teaching. 
It  was  different  from  that  to  which  the  people 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED        ^3 

had  been  accustomed.  It  was  upon  the  most  vital 
themes,  was  presented  in  the  most  simple  and  win- 
some way,  was  always  concrete,  never  abstract, 
and  was  given  with  a  freshness,  a  depth  of  con- 
viction, and  with  a  sense  of  authority  which  were 
entirely  new  to  them.  Never  before  had  they 
heard  one  speak  as  he  did.  "He  spake  as  one 
having  authority  and  not  as  their  scribes."  The 
teaching  of  the  latter  was  purely  mechanical, 
merely  a  repetition  of  what  some  scribe  or  scribes 
of  the  past  had  said.  His  illustrations  were  ex- 
ceedingly simple  and  were  very  numerous,  consti- 
tuted, in  fact,  the  great  bulk  of  his  teaching. 
They  were  drawn  from  every  source — from  na- 
ture largely,  even,  also,  from  the  commonest 
affairs  of  every-day  life.  With  its  peculiar 
charm,  to  which  his  own  attractive  personality 
was  to  be  added,  his  teaching  was  calculated  to 
arrest  the  attention  of  all  who  listened  to  him. 
The  profoundest  truths  were  made  intelligible  to 
the  common  people,  while  the  spirit  in  which  they 
were  presented  was  so  kind,  so  sympathetic,  so 
pervaded  by  love,  that  all  classes,  even  the  de- 
praved, were  drawn  to  him  and  heard  him  gladly. 
Then,  too,  the  mighty  deeds  of  Jesus  did  much  to 
intensify  the  popular  excitement.  In  addition  to 
works  of  healing,  occasional  miracles  were  wrought 
in  the  realm  of  nature,  such,  for  instance,  as 
stilling  the  tempest  and  raising  the  dead  to  life. 
Two  instances  of  the  latter  belong  to  this  period. 
Such  stupendous  works  as  these  would  naturally 


94j      the  new  testament  PERIOD 

produce  a  most  profound  impression.  Yet  they 
were  never  wrought  merely  to  gratify  curiosity — 
they  were  but  the  spontaneous  outgrowth  or  ex- 
pression of  the  divine  fullness  which  resided 
within  him.  It  was  as  natural  to  him,  being  such 
as  he  was,  to  work  miracles,  as  ordinary  deeds  are 
natural  to  ordinary  men.  They  were  not  by 
themselves  proof  of  his  Messiahship,  but  since  he 
made  claim  to  be  the  Messiah  sent  from  God,  this 
was  a  divine  indorsement  of  his  claim.  They 
were  always  wrought  to  bring  benefit  and  blessing 
to  others.  At  the  same  time  Jesus  did  not  con- 
sider these  works,  astonishing  as  they  were,  as 
his  most  important  function.  They  were  dis- 
tinctly subordinated  to  other  expressions  of  his 
character  and  purpose.  Faith  founded  on  them 
alone,  he  regarded  as  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Thus  everywhere  the  interest  grew,  and  the 
popularity  of  Jesus  continued  during  all  that 
year  of  his  Galilean  ministry.  This  was  particu- 
larly the  case  in  the  cities  and  towns  about  the 
shores  of  the  sea  or  lake  of  Galilee,  the  most 
populous  part  of  the  country,  where  much  of  his 
time  was  spent.  The  Gospels  give  many  interest- 
ing details  of  this  period. 

After  healing  the  nobleman's  son  at  Caper- 
naum, Jesus  himself  being  at  Cana  at  the  time,  he 
visited  his  Nazareth  home.  Here  his  implied  Mes- 
sianic claims  led  his  former  townsmen  to  try  to 
kill  him.  Escaping,  he  took  up  his  abode  at 
Capernaum  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  the  commercial 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       95 

capital  of  the  province,  making  this  his  home  dur- 
ing- all  his  subsequent  ministry  in  this  region. 

Among  the  notable  events  of  this  period  was 
Jesus'  choice  of  the  twelve  after  a  night  of 
prayer,  with  a  view  to  the  perpetuation  of  his 
work  after  his  own  death  which  he  now  clearly  dis- 
cerned would  be  the  outcome  of  his  ministry.  So 
bitterly  hostile  were  the  Jewish  leaders  at  Jeru- 
salem, their  influence  early  began  to  make  itself 
felt  even  at  this  distance,  and  it  soon  became  evi- 
dent that  they  would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less 
than  his  life.  In  addition  to  some  who  were  al- 
ready loosely  his  followers,  he  chose  others  to 
make  up  the  number  twelve.  These  he  now  form- 
ally set  apart  for  their  great  mission.  At  once 
he  began  to  instruct  them  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
kingdom  which  he  was  seeking  to  establish.  This 
instruction  is  embodied  in  what  is  termed  his 
sermon  on  the  mount.  Though  primarily  de- 
signed for  the  twelve,  it  was  also  addressed  to  the 
larger  number  of  disciples  from  whom  they  had 
been  chosen,  together  with  the  greater  multitude 
who  had  gathered  to  listen  to  him.  He  made  au- 
thoritative statement  as  to  the  spiritual  character 
of  this  kingdom,  his  own  relation  to  it,  the  con- 
dition of  membership  in  it,  and  the  spirit  by  which 
members  should  be  actuated.  The  relation  of  men 
to  God  and  to  each  other  was  pointed  out.  The 
underlying  thought  of  the  sermon  was  righteous- 
ness, rectitude  of  the  inner  life  primarily,  in  sharp 
contrast  with  the  prevailing  emphasis  upon  mere 


96      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

external  correctness  of  action.  At  every  step  it 
came  into  collision  with  the  superstitious  and  os- 
tentatious teachings  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
whose  "righteousness"  must  be  exceeded  by  any- 
one who  would  become  a  member  of  this  kingdom. 

The  disciples  thus  set  apart  were  now  to  be 
continuously  with  Jesus,  to  listen  to  his  public 
teaching,  to  witness  his  works,  to  receive  his  priv- 
ate instructions,  and  in  order,  also,  that  he  might 
make  his  own  personal  impress  upon  them  more 
effective.  In  these  various  ways  they  would 
gradually  become  fitted  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
the  kingdom  after  him.  Among  these  were  the 
two  pairs  of  brothers,  James  and  John,  Andrew 
and  Peter,  who  had  been  among  the  first  to  seek 
a  closer  acquaintance  with  him.  All  were  from 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  society,  were  evi- 
dently possessed  of  a  reasonable  education  for  the 
time,  and  all  were  chosen  upon  the  ground  of  a 
certain  moral  aptitude  for  the  mission  which  was 
later  to  be  committed  to  them.  They  were  not 
at  once  to  understand  all  that  Jesus  said  and  did. 
There  was  much  for  them  to  unlearn  as  well  as 
positively  to  be  taught,  and  they  were  slow  of 
apprehension.  Still,  the  form  of  Christ's  teach- 
ing was  such  as  would  lodge  great  principles  in 
their  minds.  These  would  gradually  be  grasped 
by  them,  especially  later,  when,  under  the  Spirit's 
influence,  they  would  be  brought  to  their  recol- 
lection and  be  rendered  luminous. 

The  year  was   crowded  with  incidents.     Even 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED        97 

those  which  are  given  in  the  Gospels  probably 
constitute  but  a  small  proportion  of  those  which 
actually  occurred.  At  one  time  the  press  was  so 
great  that  men  let  down  one  who  sought  healing 
through  the  flat  roof  of  the  house  in  which  Jesus 
was  teaching.  At  another  he  crossed  the  lake, 
calming  the  storm  which  arose  on  the  way,  and  on 
the  other  side  healed  the  Gadarene  demoniac.  On 
his  return  to  Capernaum  he  raised  Jairus' 
daughter  from  the  dead.  On  many  occasions  he 
showed  his  power  over  evil  spirits  by  casting  them 
out.  When  the  Jerusalem  leaders  charged  him 
with  accomplishing  this  result  through  being  in 
league  with  Beelzebub,  the  chief  of  evil  spirits,  he 
showed  the  absurdity  of  the  charge.  It  would 
simply  mean  a  house  divided  against  itself, — ^he 
invading  the  realm  of  Satan  and  overcoming  some 
of  his  subjects,  Satan  himself  cooperating. 

Not  only  did  Jesus  himself  make  a  number  of 
evangelistic  tours  through  the  country,  attended 
by  his  disciples,  crowds  following,  he  at  one  time 
sent  the  disciples  themselves  out  two  by  two,  to 
heal  the  sick,  to  announce  the  nearness  of  the 
kingdom,  and  to  relieve  the  spiritual  destitution 
of  the  people.  When  at  length  they  learned  of 
the  murder  of  John  the  Baptist  by  Herod 
Antipas,  at  the  instigation  of  his  acting  wife 
Herodias — a  murder  which  shocked  the  whole 
country — the  disciples  returned  to  their  Master, 
perhaps  fearing  violence  to  themselves.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  Jesus  proposed  that  they  all  go 


98      THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

apart  and  rest  a  while  on  the  northeast  shore  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  just  east  of  where  the  Jordan 
River  flows  into  it.  But  they  could  not  escape  the 
multitudes  who  immediately  followed  the  course 
of  the  boat  on  foot  along  the  shore. 

The  culminating  point  of  Christ's  public  min- 
istry may  be  said  to  have  been  reached  at  this 
time — for  it  was  here  that  the  great  miracle  of 
feeding  the  5,000  was  wrought  which  so  roused 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  that  they  were 
clamorous  to  make  him  king.  He  seemed  to  them, 
at  that  moment,  completely  to  fulfill  their  concep- 
tion of  the  expected  Messiah.  Under  such  a 
leadership  as  his,  their  nation  could  certainly  free 
itself  from  the  hated  Roman  dominion,  soon  take 
its  place  as  the  one  great  power  of  the  world  to 
which  all  nations  would  gradually  become  subject. 
The  kingdom  of  God,  as  they  regarded  it,  would 
be  set  up. 

But  such  a  career  and  such  an  outcome  were 
the  farthest  possible  from  Christ's  thought  and 
purpose.  To  have  yielded  to  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  people  would  not  only  have  been  to  invite  in- 
stant trouble  with  the  Roman  government  on  the 
ground  of  treason  and  rebellion,  it  would  have 
been  to  bring  his  entire  mission  to  naught.  All 
this  seems  to  have  been  foreshadowed  in  his  wilder- 
ness temptation  at  the  beginning,  when  the  battle 
between  the  material  and  the  spiritual  was  once 
for  all  fought  out  in  his  mind.  There  was  no 
temptation  now.     The  thought  of  such  a  thing  as 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       99 

setting  up  an  earthly  kingdom  was  not  to  be,  and 
was  not  tolerated  for  a  moment.  So  Jesus  sent 
his  disciples  away,  quietly  dismissed  the  multi- 
tude as  soon  as  practicable,  while  he  himself  with- 
drew to  the  retirement  of  a  mountain  near  by  to 
spend  the  night  in  communing  with  his  Father. 
It  was  a  time  when  it  was  necessary  to  save  him- 
self from  his  misguided  friends.  It  was  that  same 
night,  toward  morning,  that  he  went  to  the  storm- 
tossed  disciples  who  were  unable  to  make  head- 
way, walking  on  the  water. 

When  the  people  realized  that  Jesus  did  not 
listen  to  their  proposal,  and  more  than  ever  after 
they  heard  his  sermon  the  next  day  at  Capernaum 
on  the  bread  of  life — in  which  the  true  spiritual 
nature  of  his  mission  was  set  forth,  but  which  they 
in  their  unspiritual  state  were  unable  to  grasp — 
they  were  filled  with  disappointment,  even 
chagrin.  He  was  not  the  kind  of  a  man,  after 
all,  they  were  looking  for  as  the  Messiah  of  their 
hopes.  Then  that  happened  which  would  doubt- 
less have  happened  at  an  earlier  time  but  for 
Jesus'  caution  and  tact  in  holding  off  the  crisis  as 
long  as  possible, — the  popular  enthusiasm  sub- 
sided, and  there  was  a  general  falling  away  among 
those  who  had  followed  and  supported  him  before. 
The  time  of  sifting  had  come.  It  would  now  be 
made  evident  how  many  could  really  be  depended 
upon.  About  this  time,  also,  the  embitterment  of 
the  Pharisees  against  Christ  seemed  especially 
severe,   and  their  antagonism  was   open   and   de- 


100     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

clared.  This  was  a  distinct  turning  point  in  his 
ministry.  It  was  a  kind  of  watershed,  as  it  has 
been  termed,  marking  the  summit  of  the  ascent 
and  the  beginning  of  the  descent.  Not  before 
this  had  the  popular  enthusiasm  reached  such  a 
height,  not  afterward  did  it  attain  so  high  a 
point  again.  His  public  ministry  might  almost 
be  said  to  have  practically  ended,  certainly  so  in 
Galilee. 

CONTENTS  OF  HIS  TEACHING 

The  subject  matter  or  contents  of  Christ's 
teaching  may  be  referred  to  here  as  well  as  any- 
where. It  was  focused  upon  a  few  burning  ques- 
tions of  the  time  of  which  the  central  was  the 
kingdom  of  God,  which  was  specially  dwelt  upon 
in  the  sermon  on  the  mount.  This,  indeed,  lay  at 
the  foundation  of  all  his  teachings,  as  was  the 
case  with  John  the  Baptist.  The  latter  was  soon 
left  far  behind,  for  while  the  teaching  of  the  fore- 
runner could  be  summed  up  very  briefly,  that  of 
Jesus  expanded  and  ramified  in  a  thousand  differ- 
ent directions.  It  attached  itself  to  what  was 
most  central  and  vital  in  the  Old  Testament  and 
carried  it  forward  to  its  legitimate  outcome. 
Truths  which  appeared  there  only  in  germ,  now 
blossomed  out  in  their  fullness  and  beauty.  The 
one  element  of  the  popular  conception  of  the 
kingdom  which  Jesus  took  pains  definitely  to  dis- 
card, was  the  idea  that  it  was  to  be  political  and 
material.     That  which  he  came  to  inaugurate  was 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      101 

to  be  entirely  spiritual  in  its  character,  its  seat 
to  be  in  the  hearts  of  men,  its  controlling  motive 
love,  its  membership  to  be  made  up  of  all  those, 
of  whatever  race  or  rank.  Gentile  as  well  as  Jew, 
who  would  renounce  their  sins,  be  loyal  to  the  new 
kingdom  and  its  interests,  and  to  himself  as  its 
founder  and  head. 

Christ  emphasized  the  fatherhood  of  God  in 
his  teaching.  He  was  not  simply  the  creator,  or 
a  distant  and  unapproachable  ruler  or  king, 
rather  he  was  the  loving  father  of  all,  interested 
in  them  individually,  easily  accessible,  and  in  his 
providence  he  had  made  provision  for  their  wants, 
as  he  had,  indeed,  for  all  created  life.  While  the 
idea  of  the  divine  fatherhood  was  not  unknown  to 
the  Jewish  people,  their  thought  was  rather  of 
his  relation  to  the  nation  than  to  the  individual. 
But  although  God  was  the  father  of  all  men,  not 
all,  in  Christ's  use  of  the  term,  were  his  sons,  al- 
though all  might  become  so  if  they  would.  As  to 
himself,  Jesus  employed  the  expression,  "Son  of 
Man,"  no  doubt  with  Messianic  import,  even 
though  not  currently  so  understood,  as  a  self- 
designation.  As  "Son  of  God,"  his  divine  char- 
acter in  the  fullest  sense  was  the  recognized 
significance  of  the  expression. 

Christ  laid  stress  upon  the  Paraclete  or  Holy 
Spirit,  whom  he  declared  he  would  send,  after 
his  departure,  to  be  his  invisible  representative 
among  men.  It  would  be  a  new  spiritual  force  in 
the  human  heart,  whose  function  would  be  to  com- 


102    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

fort,  to  inspire,  to  transform,  to  empower  for 
bearing  witness,  and  to  direct  the  disciples'  ac- 
tivities for  the  kingdom.  As  to  the  nature  of 
this  new  life,  it  was  to  be  primarily  inward,  which 
in  turn  would  make  righteous  the  life  without. 
Salvation  was  to  be  release  from  the  dominating 
power  of  sin,  this  to  be  realized  in  growing  de- 
gree, the  simple  condition  being  repentance  and 
faith.  This  insured  both  forgiveness  for  the 
past,  and  the  inworking  of  divine  grace  for  pres- 
ent and  future  needs.  The  future  life  with  its 
two  conditions,  its  rewards  and  punishments,  was 
set  forth  as  a  mighty  reality.  These  were  some 
of  the  great  doctrinal  teachings  of  Jesus,  in  most 
cases  the  direct  opposite  of  the  views  then  cur- 
rent. The  fact  of  a  future  life,  however,  was  ad- 
mitted by  the  Pharisees,  but  was  rejected  by  the 
Sadducees,  who  were  the  materialists  of  the  period. 
In  regard  to  prevailing  practices  among  the 
Jews  in  their  daily  living,  Jesus  did  not  hesitate 
to  criticise  and  denounce  them  if  occasion  seemed 
to  require  it,  as  was  often  the  case.  In  regard  to 
their  strict  Sabbath  observance,  he  disturbed  Jew- 
ish conceit  by  declaring  that  the  law  expressly 
provided  for  acts  of  mercy  even  on  that  day,  thus 
justifying  his  own  works  of  healing  on  the  Sab- 
bath, which  so  often  offended  them  and  aroused 
their  hostility.  The  Sabbath,  he  said,  was  made 
for  man,  for  his  good,  to  be  his  servant,  rather 
than  that  man  was  made  for  the  Sabbath,  to  be 
his  exacting  master.     Finally  he,  Christ,  was  him- 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      103 

self  greater  than  the  Sabbath,  and  was  not  to  be 
bound  by  mere  rules  in  regard  to  it. 

Again,  the  possibility  of  evading  filial  obliga- 
tions through  some  technicality  of  scribal  origin, 
was  severely  condemned.  The  duty  to  care  for 
dependent  parents  was  clear,  the  dictate  of  the 
commonest  gratitude  and  justice,  and  yet  by  the 
process  of  dedicating  one's  possessions  to  God — 
pronouncing  the  word  "Corban"  (meaning  dedi- 
cation) over  them — one  might  still  retain  them. 
This,  Jesus  declared,  set  at  naught  the  plain  com- 
mandment of  God  to  honor  one's  parents.  So  in 
regard  to  the  binding  character  of  certain  oaths, 
their  practice  in  regard  to  this  was  denounced  in 
the  severest  terms.  If  a  man  swore  by  the 
Temple,  for  instance,  he  was  not  obliged  to  keep 
his  oath,  but  if  by  the  gold  of  its  adornment,  he 
was  bound  by  it.  The  oath  had  no  value  if  one 
swore  by  the  altar,  but  it  was  sacred  if  taken 
upon  the  offering.  Such  was  the  casuistry  by 
which  the  scribes  settled  questions.  Christ  de- 
clared that  the  only  safe  way  was  to  discard  the 
use  of  oaths  altogether.  Communications  be- 
tween men  should  be  yea,  yea,  and  nay,  nay. 

In  the  matter  of  eating  and  the  prohibition 
of  certain  kinds  of  food  as  unclean — on  the  strict 
observance  of  which  the  Jews  prided  themselves 
— they  must  have  been  greatly  shocked  at 
Christ's  saying  that  a  man  was  not  defiled  by  that 
which  entered  into  his  mouth,  but  rather  by  what 
came  out  of  it — not  by  what  he  ate,  but  by  what 


104    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

he  said  and  did.  In  regard  to  the  many  costly 
sacrifices  and  offerings  which  prevailed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Temple  worship,  he  saw  no  special 
value  in  them.  The  most  acceptable  offerings 
which  could  be  made  were  inward,  the  sacrifices  of 
a  broken  and  a  contrite  heart,  as  had  long  before 
been  declared.  To  him,  the  Temple  was  a  house 
of  prayer  rather  than  a  place  for  the  slaughter 
of  beasts.  So  outraged  did  he  feel  by  the  traf- 
fic which  was  carried  on  there,  that  he  called  it 
"a  house  of  merchandise  and  a  den  of  thieves." 

As  to  the  acts  of  men,  these  were  to  be 
judged  by  the  motives  which  inspired  them. 
Only  in  this  way  could  their  moral  quality  be  de- 
termined. Anything  prompted  merely  by  a  de- 
sire for  the  praises  of  men  was  of  no  value  in 
God's  sight.  This  was  true  whether,  as  was  not 
unusual,  one  prayed  in  public  in  order  to  be  seen 
of  men  and  to  receive  credit  for  his  piety,  or 
gave  alms,  or  fasted.  There  was  no  merit  what- 
ever in  deeds  prompted  by  such  motives.  A  tree 
could  only  be  known  by  its  fruits,  and  Judaism, 
as  it  then  existed,  judged  by  this  standard,  was 
worthless.  The  time  for  its  overthrow  had  come. 
Already  the  axe  of  destruction  was  laid  at  its 
roots.  So  much  was  made  of  the  non-essentials 
of  conduct,  Christ  said,  that  the  greater  and 
graver  things  pertaining  to  it  were  frequently  en- 
tirely ignored.  He  went  so  far  in  his  condemna- 
tion of  those  who  were  responsible  for  this  state 
of  things,  or  for  continuing  it,  as  to  accuse  them 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED       105 

of  making  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup  and  plat- 
ter, and  of  being  entirely  neglectful  of  that 
which  was  within.  They  were  like  whited  sepul- 
chers — outwardly  beautiful,  but  within  full  of 
dead  men's  bones  and  all  uncleanness. 

It  is  not  strange  that  by  such  teachings  Jesus 
should  have  brought  himself  into  disfavor,  but 
there  seemed  to  be  no  other  way.  The  situation 
was  one  which  called  urgently  for  a  new  order  of 
things  and  a  more  spiritual  religion.  This  he 
gave  to  them  in  his  gospel,  whose  principles  went 
to  the  foundation  of  things,  and  must,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  entirely  revolutionize  prevail- 
ing views  and  practices. 

SPECIAL  TRAINING  OF  THE  TWELVE 

The  Galilean  ministry  proper  having  been 
practically  completed  by  the  feeding  of  the  five 
thousand  and  the  incidents  immediately  following, 
and  the  way  not  being  open  for  continuing  his 
public  work  further  for  the  present,  Jesus  em- 
braces the  opportunity  of  devoting  himself  more 
specifically  and  systematically  to  the  important 
task  of  training  the  disciples  for  their  future  re- 
sponsibilities. Upon  them  will  rest  the  burden  of 
carrying  on  the  work  which  he  has  begun,  but  as 
yet  they  are  far  from  being  prepared  for  it. 
This  training,  however,  was  not  an  easy  under- 
taking. Their  minds  were  full  of  the  perverted 
religious  ideas  of  the  time,  and  these  must  be  up- 
rooted.    They  were  saturated  with  the  spirit  of 


106    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

pride,  prejudice,  and  exclusiveness,  peculiar  to 
their  race,  and  this  must  be  put  away.  They  had 
little  conception  of  a  true  spiritual  life  and  a 
spiritual  kingdom,  and  they  were  slow  to  appre- 
hend spiritual  things.  Moreover,  they  were  men 
of  differing  temperaments  and  tastes  and  vary- 
ing powers  of  appreciation,  so  that  no  one  type 
or  method  of  training  would  be  adapted  to  all. 
Each  one,  in  addition  to  the  general  training 
which  all  were  to  receive  in  common,  would  re- 
quire a  special  training  suited  to  his  own  peculiai* 
needs,  if  the  best  that  was  in  him  was  to  be 
brought  out.  Still,  through  constant  association 
with  Jesus  in  his  public  and  private  life,  listening 
to  his  teachings,  sharing  in  his  work  as  they  were 
able,  being  brought  into  constant  contact  with 
his  beneficient  and  unselfish  spirit,  helped,  too,  by 
their  own  deep  and  growing  love  and  confidence 
toward  him  personally,  the  disciples  would  in  due 
time  be  measurably  fitted  for  the  work  for  which 
they  had  been  chosen.  Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  their  training,  after  all,  would  con- 
sist in  the  simple  fact  of  their  being  with  such 
an  one  as  himself.  The  unconscious  influence 
upon  them  of  his  own  daily  life  and  spirit,  would 
be  beyond  computation  and  of  priceless  worth. 
Moreover,  by  observing  his  tactful  ways  of  dealing 
with  men,  of  adapting  himself  and  his  methods 
to  individual  needs,  and  of  embracing,  even  mak- 
ing opportunities  for  kindly  ministry  to  others, 
they  could  not  fail  to  learn  much  in  the  way  of 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      107 

practical  wisdom  for  their  own  future  guidance. 
Thus  gradually  they  would  be  enlightened  in  un- 
derstanding, broadened  in  their  sympathies, 
emancipated  from  the  mere  customs,  superstitions, 
traditions,  and  commandments  of  men,  their 
tempers  purged  of  worldly  ambition,  selfishness 
and  pride,  and  they  became  measurably  fitted  at 
length  for  their  great  mission  of  being  leaders  of 
a  spiritual  and  universal  religious  movement. 
This  preparation  would  be  completed,  after 
Christ's  departure  from  them,  by  the  bestowment 
upon  them  in  special  measure  and  power,  of  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

As  it  would  be  difficult  to  devote  himself  ex- 
clusively to  the  disciples  at  Capernaum  or  in 
Galilee,  where  distractions  and  interruptions 
would  be  likely  to  be  numerous  and  frequent, 
Christ  concluded  to  go  with  them  into  a  kind  of 
semi-retirement  for  a  season  by  journeying  be- 
yond the  borders  of  the  province.  First,  they 
went  into  Phoenicia.  It  was  here,  in  the  regions 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  that  the  incident  occurred  of 
the  ;  healing  of  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman's 
daughter.  Although  Jesus  was  constantly  de- 
voting himself  now  to  teaching  his  disciples,  he 
did  not  refuse  to  engage  in  helpful  ministries  to 
others  if  occasion  seemed  to  demand. 

After  remaining  in  this  section  of  the  country 
for  a  time,  Christ  and  the  disciples  journeyed 
eastward  across  the  Lebanon  mountains  in  the  di- 
rection of  Damascus,  but  turned  to  the  southward, 


108    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

evidently,  before  reaching  there.  They  go  to  the 
east  side  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  by  way  of  the 
northern  portion  of  Decapolis.  Here  also  they 
remain  for  a  considerable  period,  Christ  all  the 
time  continuing  his  instructions.  Then  the  peo- 
ple again  began  to  come  to  him,  sometimes  in 
large  numbers,  somewhat  as  before  in  Galilee. 
Here  the  feeding  of  the  four  thousand  took  place. 
The  fact  that  all  four  of  the  Gospels  record  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand,  some  months  before 
this,  and  two  of  them  this  incident  in  addition,  to- 
gether with  the  fact  of  numerous  differences  in 
the  details,  and  that  Jesus  himself  referred  to 
them  as  separate  incidents,  would  seem  clearly 
to  make  this  a  transaction  independent  of  the 
other. 

Later  still,  Jesus  is  with  the  disciples  in  the 
vicinity  of  Caesarea  Philippi.  It  was  here  that 
the  notable  incident, — ^which  may  be  regarded  as 
marking  a  definite  crisis  or  climax  in  the  training 
of  the  twelve, — of  the  great  confession  of  Christ's 
Messiahship  by  Peter,  speaking  for  the  entire 
company  of  the  disciples,  took  place.  The  time 
had  come  when  Jesus  felt  that  a  probing  of  the 
disciples  in  regard  to  their  estimate  of  his  own 
character  and  claims  was  important.  They  had 
learned  much,  but  there  was  much  more  to  be 
taught,  and  of  a  much  more  advanced  nature. 
They  had  heard  his  teachings,  had  seen  his  mighty 
works,  had   lived   with   him,   coming  into   closest 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      109 

contact.  What  was  their  real  thought  concern- 
ing him?  Had  they  any  convictions  on  the  sub- 
ject of  his  Messiahship  which  were  deep  and 
strong,  which  were  spiritual  and  abiding?  He 
first  inquires  of  them  as  to  the  opinions  of  people 
in  general  concerning  himself.  He  would  in  this 
way  introduce  the  subject.  They  report  the  dif- 
fering views  which  were  entertained.  Then  he 
asks  abruptly,  "But  whom  say  ye  that  I  am?"  It 
was  a  crucial  moment  with  them,  and  no  less  so 
with  Jesus  himself.  Much  depended  upon  their 
answer.  It  was  true  that  they  had  taken  him  as 
the  Messiah  at  the  start,  but  their  views  then 
were  extremely  superficial  and  crude,  for  they 
knew  little  or  nothing  about  him.  What  do  they 
tliink  now,  after  all  that  they  have  seen  and 
learned  concerning  him?  It  was  Peter,  Peter- 
like, who  promptly  answered,  speaking  for  the 
twelve,  "Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  liv- 
ing God."  Jesus'  heart  was  rejoiced  by  the  con- 
fession. God  himself,  he  declared,  had  inspired 
it  within  them.  They  may  not  have  risen  to  the 
highest  point  of  faith  even  yet,  there  was  still 
room  for  advance,  but  this  was  a  distinct  step  of 
progress,  and  with  this  question  settled  in  their 
minds,  he  can  go  forward  to  other  and  more  ad- 
vanced stages  in  his  instructions.  It  was  upon 
this  great  truth,  uttered  by  Peter  in  a  representa- 
tive capacity,  speaking  for  all, — viz :  faith  in  him- 
self as  the  divine  Son  of  God,  that  the  kingdom 


110    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

which  he  was  establishing  was  to  rest.  This  was 
its  corner  stone  and  against  it  the  gates  of  Hades 
would  not  be  able  to  prevail. 

The  question  settled  as  to  the  attitude  of  the 
disciples  toward  him  and  his  Messiahship,  Jesus 
now  seeks  to  prepare  their  minds  for  his  coming 
death,  which  he  clearly  foresaw.  They  do  not 
fully  apprehend  the  significance  of  what  he  says, 
least  of  all  in  regard  to  his  resurrection  from  the 
dead,  of  which  he  speaks.  Only  through  the 
quickening  and  enlightening  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  later,  will  they  be  able  fully  to  grasp  the 
meaning  of  his  words. 

The  transfiguration  took  place  shortly  after 
the  great  confession,  probably  on  some  spur  of 
Mount  Hermon.  The  conversation  of  the  heav- 
enly visitants,  Moses  and  Elijah,  with  Jesus,  had 
to  do  with  this  same  subject,  viz.:  the  decease 
which  he  was  to  accomplish  at  Jerusalem.  Al- 
though even  yet  their  minds  did  not  fully  take  in 
the  fact,  over  which  they  would  stumble  later,  a 
profound  impression  was  made  upon  the  three 
disciples,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  who  were 
privileged  to  be  present.  As  for  Jesus  himself, 
he  seems  to  have  become  girded  afresh  by  the  ex- 
perience for  the  ordeals  which  awaited  him,  and 
to  become  much  more  bold  than  usual  in  his  public 
utterances  as  to  coming  judgments  upon  the  Jew- 
ish people  and  with  reference  to  the  progress  and 
ultimate  triumph  of  his  kingdom. 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED     111 

THE  PEREAN  MINISTRY 

After  Jesus  had  devoted  some  months,  in  his 
partial  retirement,  to  the  training  of  the  twelve, 
he  began  slowly  to  advance  southward  through 
Perea,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  teaching, 
preaching,  healing  as  he  went.  His  goal  was 
Jerusalem,  where  the  tragic  ending  of  his  career 
was  to  take  place.  We  are  indebted  to  Luke's 
Gospel  almost  entirely  for  our  knowledge  of  this 
period,  which  also  covered  several  months. 

He  did  not  confine  himself  to  this  region,  al- 
though his  work  was  mainly  here.  From  time  to 
time  he  went  into  other  sections,  Samaria,  or 
Judea,  with  occasional  visits  to  Jerusalem.  Nor 
are  we  certain  as  to  the  order  of  events  chrono- 
logically. The  incident  of  James  and  John  pro- 
posing to  call  down  fire  from  heaven  upon  a 
Samaritan  town  because  it  would  not  receive  the 
Master,  is  recorded,  the  healing  also  at  Jerusalem 
of  the  man  born  blind,  the  raising  of  Lazarus 
from  the  dead  at  Bethany,  the  giving  of  the  para- 
bles of  the  Good  Samaritan  and  the  Prodigal  Son, 
— all  occurred  during  this  portion  of  his  ministry. 
Early  in  this  period  he  sent  out  the  seventy  two 
by  two  to  prepare  the  way  before  him.  In  his 
teaching  now  he  lays  less  stress  upon  the  king- 
dom, more  upon  the  person  of  the  King.  The 
Messiah  of  prophecy  was  to  be  a  suffering  Mes- 
siah, although  this  aspect  of  his  life  and  experi- 
ence had  been  strangely  missed  in  the  prevailing 


112     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

interpretations  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  Yet 
Jesus  understood  it,  and  much  in  what  he  said 
during  this  period  bore  upon  this  fact.  Espe- 
cially did  he  seek  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the 
disciples  for  the  inevitable  end  which  he  now 
clearly  foresaw.  The  Son  of  Man  must  suffer, 
he  said.  He  would  be  put  to  death  as  a  result 
of  the  hostility  of  the  Jewish  leaders.  And  yet, 
that  the  feeble  faith  of  the  disciples  might  not  be 
entirely  overwhelmed,  he  assured  them  that  after 
his  death  he  would  rise  again.  They  demurred  at 
the  suggestion  of  his  death — it  could  not,  must 
not  be.  Yet  it  was  a  part  of  God's  plan  concern- 
ing him,  and  there  was  no  escaping  it.  The  dec- 
laration as  to  his  resurrection  seems  not  to  have 
made  any  very  profound  impression  upon  the 
disciples'  minds.  They  did  not  understand  what 
it  could  mean.  Even  the  transfiguration  experi- 
ence before  this,  in  which  three  of  them  had  par- 
ticipated, meaningful  as  it  was,  seemed  to  make 
no  lasting  impression  upon  them.  Not  until  the 
dieath  and  resurrection  of  Christ  had  actually 
taken  place,  did  the  full  significance  of  these  fore- 
shadowing utterances  and  events  dawn  upon  the 
minds  of  the  disciples. 

Christ's  ministry  in  Perea  was  much  like  his 
earlier  ministry  in  Galilee.  Again  the  people 
flocked  to  hear  him,  and  he  wrought  many  cures 
upon  those  who  were  diseased.  The  population 
was  more  sparse,  and  there  was  little  embarass- 
ment  from  hostile  officials.     In  Christ's  teaching 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      113 

there  was  a  more  continuous  and  stern  note  of 
judgment  than  hitherto.  He  seemed  to  realize 
that  his  work  was  nearly  accomplished,  and  al- 
though the  shadow  of  the  cross  was  upon  him,  he 
nevertheless  steadfastly  set  his  face  to  go  to  Jeru- 
salem.    The  data  of  the  period  are  meager. 

When  finally  the  Passover  festival  drew  near, 
crowds  of  people  began  to  make  their  way  from 
all  parts  toward  the  holy  city.  Jesus  and  his 
company  fell  in  with  many  from  Galilee,  so  that 
by  the  time  they  reached  the  Jordan  opposite 
Jericho,  there  was  a  large  company.  At  Jericho 
occurred  the  incidents  of  healing  a  blind  man  and 
of  Jesus'  experience  with  Zacchaeus,  who,  though 
he  had  been  a  chief  publican,  now  became  a  dis- 
ciple. After  this  Jesus  went  on  to  Bethany,  and 
made  his  headquarters  with  Mary,  Martha,  and 
Lazarus  during  the  fateful  closing  days  of  his 
life. 

THE  LAST  DAYS 

There  was  much  suppressed  excitement  among 
the  crowds  of  people  who  had  already  reached 
Jerusalem  as  well  as  among  those  who  had  jour- 
neyed with  Jesus.  The  name  and  fame  of  the 
great  Teacher  and  Wonder-Worker  were  well 
known,  and  it  was  believed  that  some  demonstra- 
tion would  be  made  by  him  at  this  time.  Reports 
of  the  miracle  of  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  recently 
performed  by  him  at  Bethany,  a  miracle  which 
none   could  gainsay,  had  already  filled  the  city. 


114    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

It  had  awakened  a  mighty  enthusiasm  among  the 
visiting  multitude,  and  their  demand  was  insistent 
that  he  should  declare  himself  king.  To  this 
demand  he  was  no  longer  unwilling  to  yield. 
Hitherto  he  had  refrained  from  all  public  decla- 
rations, direct  or  indirect,  of  his  Messiahship,  al- 
though from  many  things  he  said  it  might  have 
been  inferred.  But  now  he  would  restrain  the 
popular  enthusiasm  no  longer.  The  time  for  re- 
serve had  passed.  And  so  he  made  his  triumphal 
entry,  amidst  the  hosanna  shouts  of  the  attend- 
ing multitudes,  and  by  which  the  city  was  greatly 
stirred.  Yet  he  accepted  this  popular  welcome 
with  full  knowledge  of  its  transitory  and  superfi- 
cial character.  He  was  not  deceived  by  it.  Most 
of  those  in  the  throng  had  but  a  slight  under- 
standing, at  best,  of  these  things.  They  were 
still  in  the  twilight  of  old  Jewish  expectations, 
mistakenly  supposing  that  the  time  for  the 
realization  of  them  had  come.  Nothing  came  of 
the  demonstration.  Christ  did  not  put  himself 
forward  as  the  leader  the  crowds  were  looking  for, 
and  there  was  disappointment.  The  enthusiasm 
died  away. 

As  for  the  Jewish  leaders,  as  they  saw  the  un- 
mistakable signs  of  Jesus'  popularity,  they  be- 
came more  and  more  determined  in  their  hostility, 
and  deliberately  laid  their  plans  for  putting  him 
out  of  the  way.  Formally  or  informally,  the  San- 
hedrin  had  decreed  his  death  already. 

These    last    days,    spent    in    Jerusalem,    were 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED     116 

crowded  with  activity.  Jesus  seems  to  have 
driven  out  the  traders  from  the  temple  again. 
Now  he  was  teaching,  bearing  witness  to  the  truth. 
Frequently  he  was  interrupted  by  the  Jewish 
leaders  as  they  persistently,  through  pre-ar- 
ranged plans,  sought  to  entangle  or  in  some  way 
to  entrap  him  in  his  statements  and  thus  give 
ground  for  definite  charges  against  him.  He 
proved  himself,  however,  to  be  more  than  a  match 
for  them.  With  all  their  artifice  and  cunning,  he 
discomfited  them  in  every  instance.  More  than 
once  he  himself  took  the  aggressive,  and  turned 
upon  them  the  most  scathing  rebukes  which  ever 
fell  from  human  lips,  for  perverting  God's  truth, 
for  their  hollow  pretense  of  righteousness,  and 
for  misleading  the  people  as  they  did.  Now  he 
commends  the  sincere  though  trifling  gift  of  the 
devout  widow,  which  was  far  more  in  God's  sight 
than  the  ostentatious  offerings  of  the  wealthy. 
Again,  he  converses  with  the  Greeks,  foreign 
proselytes  probably,  who  sought  to  see  him  of 
whom  they  had  heard  much.  At  another  time  he 
was  devoting  himself  to  his  disciples,  who  were 
no  doubt  perplexed  by  the  things  they  saw  and 
heard,  and  by  the  temper  of  the  people  toward 
him  which  could  not  be  mistaken.  All  the  oc- 
currences of  those  days  gave  him  added  oppor- 
tunity to  impress  needed  truths  upon  them,  both 
to  relieve  their  minds  because  of  the  opposition 
and  hostility  which  were  manifested  toward  him, 
and  to  cheer  them  with  the  more  glorious  pros- 


116    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

pects  of  the  future,  of  which  the  present  ordeals 
were  a  necessary  prelude. 

Then  there  was  that  last  tender,  loving,  unin- 
terrupted interview  between  them  on  the  evening 
of  the  betrayal.  The  disciples  had  gathered  in' 
an  upper  room  where  preparation  had  been  pre- 
viously made  for  them  to  eat  the  passover  meal 
together.  It  was  a  memorable  interview,  both  be- 
cause it  was  the  last,  although  the  disciples  did 
not  realize  it,  and  because  of  the  things  said  and 
done  during  its  continuance.  Jesus  knew  that  his 
end  was  near,  had  already  discerned  the  traitor- 
ous designs  of  one  among  the  disciples,  who  later, 
however,  passed  out,  and  in  all  that  he  said  he 
kept  this  fact  steadily  in  view.  The  unseemly 
dispute  of  the  disciples  concerning  precedence  at 
the  table,  was  met  by  his  washing  their  feet,  a 
most  menial  service,  by  which  he  gave  them  an 
object  lesson  which  they  could  never  forget  as  to 
the  true  spirit  of  the  Christian  disciple.  Rather 
than  selfishly  and  ambitiously  to  seek  their  own 
advantage,  their  mission  was  that  of  humble  min- 
istry to  others.  The  boast  of  Peter  of  his  own 
loyalty,  even  though  all  the  rest  should  forsake 
their  Master,  was  met  by  the  prediction,  after- 
ward fulfilled  to  the  letter,  of  his  own  denial  of 
him,  thrice  repeated,  before  the  morning's  dawn. 
The  paschal  memories  of  the  occasion  furnished 
Jesus  opportunity  to  establish  the  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  as  it  is  termed,  which  would 
symbolize  the  new  covenant  which  he  was  soon  to 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      117 

seal  with  his  own  blood,  and  which  he  bade  his 
disciples  observe  in  remembrance  of  him,  as  it  has 
been  done  in  the  Christian  church  ever  since. 

Of  the  long  and  full  discourse  of  admonition 
and  comfort  which  Jesus  gave  to  the  disciples  at 
that  time,  and  the  marvelous  prayer  which  fol- 
lowed, in  which  among  other  things,  he  besought 
that  all  his  believing  ones  might  be  one,  as  he 
and  the  Father  were  one,  we  have  account  in  two 
of  the  Gospels,  particularly  in  that  of  John. 
(John  14-17).  Then,  after  a  hymn,  the  inter- 
view ended,  and  they  went  forth  from  the  city 
across  the  ravine  of  the  Kedron,  eastward,  to 
the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  Here  the  burdened 
heart  of  the  Master  poured  itself  forth  in  com- 
munion with  his  Father.  He  endured  unspeak- 
able agony  of  spirit  so  much  so  that  he  sweat,  as 
it  were,  great  drops  of  blood.  But  although  the 
cup  which  he  was  about  to  drink  might  not  pass, 
he  was  girded  with  fresh  strength  for  the  ordeal 
which  was  immediately  at  hand. 

Then  the  arrest — the  traitorous  disciple  guid- 
ing the  armed  band  which  had  been  sent  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Jewish  authorities — took  place, 
and  Jesus  was  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  The 
disciples  in  their  fear,  all  forsook  him  and  fled, 
although  two,  John  and  Peter,  returned  later  and 
remained  near  by  during  the  trial.  When  the 
High  Priest,  after  the  failure  of  the  suborned 
witnesses  to  make  out  anything  definite  against 
him,  demanded  that  Jesus  should  tell,  under  oath, 


118    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

whether  he  was  the  Messiah  or  not,  he  answered 
affirmatively,  declaring  also  the  glorious  vindica- 
tion which  his  words  and  cause  should  have  in 
the  future.  This  claim  was  enough  for  the  San- 
hedrists.  It  was  regarded  as  blasphemy,  and  at 
once  Jesus  was  declared  worthy  of  death  and  the 
sentence  was  pronounced.  The  trial  had  been 
entirely  irregular — those  who  were  his  judges  hav- 
ing previously  determined  upon  his  death — and 
was  attended  by  mockery  and  abuse  of  the  digni- 
fied captive.  But  what  did  the  technicalities  of 
the  law  signify  to  men  who  were  determined  upon 
his  death  at  all  hazards?  What  was  it  to  them 
that  their  whole  procedure  was  a  travesty  upon 
justice?  The  two  opposing  parties  of  the  High 
Council,  the  Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees,  each 
for  ends  of  its  own,  had  united  in  a  vote  of  con- 
demnation of  Christ  upon  the  unproven  charge  of 
blasphemy. 

But  before  the  sentence  could  be  carried  out, 
the  approval  of  the  Roman  governor  must  be 
secured — such  was  the  law  in  regard  to  criminal 
cases  involving  the  death  penalty.  In  order  to 
secure  this  approval,  some  offense  must  be 
charged  which  the  Roman  law  would  recognize. 
The  accusers  of  Jesus,  therefore,  in  the  same  un- 
scrupulous spirit  as  before,  set  forth  his  claims 
in  a  false  light,  sought  to  make  him  out  a  political 
Messiah,  hostile  to  the  Roman  rule  and  seeking 
to  pervert  the  nation — the  very  thing  of  all 
others  which  he  was  not,  and  which  he  refused  to 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      119 

become.  Pilate  soon  perceived  that  the  charge 
was  trumped  up  for  the  occasion  and  sought  in 
every  way  to  escape  the  responsibility  of  giving 
sentence  against  him,  though  endeavoring  mean- 
while to  retain  the  good  will  of  the  people.  But 
the  Sanhedrists  persisted,  clamorously  declaring 
that  if  Pilate  refused  their  request,  he  was  not 
Cfesar's  friend.  This  pierced  the  weak  spot  in 
Pilate's  armor.  At  last  he  gave  way,  washed  his 
hands  of  all  responsibility — as  if  this  were  pos- 
sible— and  the  sentence  of  death  was  allowed  to 
stand.  In  this  way  he  hoped  to  make  his  own 
political  future  more  secure. 

Jesus  was  now  hurri^ed  to  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. As  the  procession,  headed  by  the  Sanhe- 
drists, passed  through  the  streets,  it  was  joined 
by  a  great  multitude.  The  actual  executioners 
were  Roman  soldiers,  but  in  moral  significance  the 
deed  belonged  entirely  to  the  Jewish  authorities, 
who,  with  the  heartless  throng,  crowded  around, 
gloating  over  the  shameful  spectacle.  Crucifix- 
ion was  the  most  humiliating  and  distressful  form 
of  death  under  the  Roman  government.  The 
death  of  Jesus,  in  the  circumstances,  was  one  of 
the  saddest  spectacles  in  human  history.  And 
yet,  through  all,  and  suffering  as  he  did,  he  bore 
himself  as  the  exalted  personage  he  was  might  be 
expected  to  do,  with  dignity,  patience,  self-re- 
serve, and  self-control,  and  without  the  slightest 
manifestation  of  any  spirit  of  hatred  or  revenge. 
Rising  above  all,  his  great  compassionate  heart 


120    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

was  touched  with  pity  for  his  murderers,  for 
whom  he  even  prayed  in  his  dying  agony.  Vari- 
ous touching  incidents  occurred  about  the  cross, 
among  them  the  committal  of  his  mother  to  the 
care  of  the  beloved  disciple ;  the  conversion  of  the 
penitent  thief;  his  sense  of  loneliness  expressed, 
as  when  it  seemed  as  if  the  Father  himself  had  for- 
saken him;  his  final  commitment  of  his  spirit  into 
that  Father's  hands ;  his  death  at  last.  The  story 
is  presented  with  great  vividness.  Later  the 
body  of  Jesus  was  taken  from  the  cross  by  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  and  Nicodemus,  placed  in  the  new 
tomb  belonging  to  the  former,  and  the  awful 
tragedy  was  over. 

To  all  human  appearance,  the  work  of  Jesus 
had  been  a  failure.  The  movement  which  he  had 
come  to  inaugurate  had  seemed  utterly  to  col- 
lapse ;  the  disciples  lost  confidence ;  everything  was 
demoralized.  They  had  indulged  the  confident 
hope  that  he  had  come  to  restore  the  kingdom — 
in  their  imperfect  understanding  of  the  term — to 
Israel.  Now  his  enemies  had  triumphed  over  him, 
his  career  was  at  an  end,  their  hopes  had  not  been 
well  grounded.  They  were  a  company  of  disap- 
pointed, disheartened  men.  True,  Jesus  had  en- 
deavored to  prepare  their  minds  for  what  was  to 
take  place,  to  remember  that  victory  would  fol- 
low, that  he  would  rise  from  the  grave,  which  would 
be  the  crowning  attestation  of  the  Father  to  the 
Son  and  to  his  Messiahship,  but  the  disciples  had 
not  grasped  his  meaning,  and  all  that  he  had  said 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      IM 

was  forgotten  in  this  hour  of  disappointment  and 
igloom.  Christ's  death  was  the  destruction  of 
their  hopes.  As  for  the  Jewish  authorities,  they 
were  thoroughly  satisfied  that  his  death  was  the 
end  of  the  whole  matter,  and  they  were  full  of 
complacency.  The  controversies  between  him 
and  them  had  been  triumphantly  settled  in  their 
favor.  His  followers  were  few  and  uninfluential. 
Now  he  was  in  his  grave;  nothing  more  was  to  be 
feared  from  him;  the  nation  was  rid  of  a  danger- 
ous disturber  of  the  peace.  No  doubt  these  Jew- 
ish leaders  kept  the  passover  feast  with  satisfac- 
tion. They  had  not  conscience  enough  to  feel 
sorrow  or  repentance  for  the  cowardly  crime  they 
had  deliberately  committed,  least  of  all  were  they 
able  to  appreciate  Christ's  holy  and  godly  char- 
acter and  spirit. 

THE  RESURRECTION  AND  ASCENSION 

But  the  hour  of  Christ's  victory  is  at  hand. 
Although  he  had  been  put  to  death  and  buried  and 
his  sepulcher  carefully  sealed,  the  tomb  could  not 
hold  him.  What  his  words — though  not  under- 
stood or  appreciated  at  the  time — were  intended 
to  foreshadow,  came  to  pass.  He  rose  from  the 
dead — God  raised  him  up.  The  tragedy  by 
which  his  enemies  thought  to  end  his  career,  was 
turned  into  signal  triumph.  None  were  more  sur- 
prised than  the  disciples.  They  could  hardly 
credit  the  reports  which  reached  them  of  his  ap- 
pearances— first  to  the  women,  then  to  one  and 


m    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

another.  They  seemed  like  idle  tales,  until  the 
fact  of  the  resurrection  was  made  personal  to  each 
one.  To  two  disciples  on  the  way  to  Emmaus, 
Christ  not  only  manifested  himself,  but  showed  at 
length  from  the  Scriptures  that  the  Messiah  who 
was  to  come  would  enter  into  his  glory  through 
suffering.  This  in  itself  would  sufficiently  ex- 
plain the  mystery  of  a  suffering  Messiah,  which 
was  so  contrary  to  the  popular  belief.  His  resur- 
rection was  implied  if  not  expressed.  Hence  in- 
stead of  being  cast  down,  they  ought  to  have  been 
expectant,  hopeful,  confident.  Paul  said  in  writ- 
ing to  the  Corinthian  Christians,  that  in  addition 
to  Christ's  appearances  to  individuals  and  to  the 
whole  company  of  his  disciples,  he  also  manifested 
himself  in  Galilee  to  above  500  persons  at  once, 
mentioning  also  that  more  than  half  of  these  were 
still  living  at  the  time  he  wrote,  which  was  some 
twenty-five  years  after  the  event. 

So  at  last  the  disciples  were  all  satisfied.  Even 
Thomas,  doubter  that  he  was  by  nature,  was  con- 
vinced. There  was  no  possible  room  for  ques- 
tioning the  fact.  So  thoroughly  indeed,  were 
they  persuaded,  that  they  never  afterward  for  a 
moment  wavered  in  their  conviction,  but  continued 
to  the  very  end  of  their  lives  to  bear  their  testi- 
mony to  the  great  and  mighty  fact  which  con- 
firmed their  Master's  claim  that  he  was  the  Son 
of  the  Most  High  and  which  gave  hope  to  the 
world,  and  this  in  spite  of  persecution  and  abuse 
and  threatened  death.     Most  of  them,  indeed,  it 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      123 

is  believed,  sealed  their  testimony  with  their  lives. 
A  fact  of  such  stupendous  significance  needed  to 
be  supported  by  evidence  which  could  not  by  any 
possibility  be  gainsaid,  and  it  was.  Conviction 
among  people  to-day  dates  from  the  very  morrow 
of  the  resurrection  itself.  It  sprang  into  exist- 
ence suddenly,  after  the  preceding  dark  and  deep 
depression.  No  doubt  there  were  many  more  ap- 
pearances of  Christ  to  the  disciples  than  have  been 
recorded.  Each  Gospel  writer  probably  selected 
such  as  were  most  personal  to  himself,  or  which 
specially  appealed  to  him,  without  attempting  to 
cover  the  whole  ground.  The  fact  of  the  resur- 
rection is  one  which  is  too  obstinate  and  too 
strongly  attested  to  be  set  aside.  It  never  has 
been.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  it  never  will  be.  As 
a  crowning  mark  of  the  divine  approval  of  what 
Christ  claimed  to  be  and  was,  the  resurrection  was 
a  necessary  complement  of  the  crucifixion. 

But  the  resurrection  was  not  the  goal  of  the 
Messiah:  it  was  only  the  way  to  it.  The  goal 
was  the  return  of  the  Son — his  earthly  mission  ac- 
complished— to  the  Father.  His  final  separation 
from  the  disciples,  after  he  had  lingered  long 
enough  on  earth  fully  to  satisfy  their  minds  and 
to  give  them  his  final  instructions,  is  described  as 
an  ascent  to  heaven.  They  were  together  on 
Olivet.  Jesus,  in  his  parting  words  to  the  dis- 
ciples, spoke  of  their  equipment  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  whom  he  would  send  upon  them  for  their 
mission,  and  of  how  they  were  to  be  witnesses  of 


lU    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

him  to  all  men.  Then  he  blessed  them,  was  sepa- 
rated from  them,  and,  slowly  ascending,  a  cloud 
received  him  out  of  their  sight.  This  was  their 
last  view  of  their  Lord. 

And  there,  in  the  heaven  to  which  he  went,  and 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father,  all  power  com- 
mitted to  him,  he  still  is,  still  continues  to  live, 
still  directs  the  affairs  of  his  earthly  kingdom, 
which  was  definitely  inaugurated  before  he  left  the 
world,  and  for  whose  continuation  he  made  pro- 
vision by  his  Spirit  and  his  providence.  There, 
too,  he  will  continue  to  live  and  to  reign  until  all 
his  enemies  are  put  under  his  feet,  and  he  ap- 
pears a  second  time  to  judge  the  world  in  right- 
eousness. 

Thus  we  have  glanced  at  the  Christian  move- 
ment in  its  beginnings,  or  as  Christ  inaugurated 
it,  and  the  steady,  consistent  course,  from  the 
first  to  the  last,  of  him  who  was  sent  into  the 
world  to  inaugurate  it.  Living  as  a  man  among 
men,  and  with  human  limitations  in  some  degree, 
divine  though  he  was,  he  yet  comported  himself 
through  his  life  as  the  exalted  being  he  really  was, 
but  whom  the  world  did  not  recognize.  He  had 
come  with  all  necessary  credentials  for  such  as 
were  open-minded  enough  to  consider  them,  had 
been  discovered  and  pointed  out  by  a  person  di- 
vinely chosen  for  that  purpose,  had  done  all  that 
he  could  do  to  impress  himself  in  his  true  char- 
acter upon  his  countrymen,  except  by  openly  and 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      125 

publicly  declaring  and  claiming  his  high  preroga- 
tives, but  which  it  seemed  wise  to  him,  for  the  most 
part,  or  save  on  rare  occasions,  not  to  do.  He 
did  not  deny  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  sometimes 
asserted  it,  frequently  left  it  to  be  inferred  from 
what  he  said,  although  as  his  ministry  advanced, 
he  spoke  with  less  reserve  about  it,  and  at  the 
very  last  he  made  no  pretense  of  reticence.  Still, 
save  as  here  and  there  some  one  of  more  spiritual 
discernment  than  the  majority  recognized  him,  the 
Jewish  people  as  a  whole  did  not  do  so,  and  he 
came  to  his  end  with  but  a  comparative  handful 
of  followers,  even  including  those  who  professed 
to  have  believed  in  him  outside  of  the  band  of 
disciples. 

We  little  realize  the  tremendous  difficulties  of 
the  situation,  the  hard,  tough  crust  of  conserva- 
tion and  perverted  views  and  pride  of  ancestry, 
which  must  be  broken  through  before  Christ's 
true  nature  and  mission  could  be  appreciated  and 
he  be  recognized  in  his  true  character.  But  he 
realized  the  situation  perfectly,  and  with  the 
greatest  wisdom  and  skill  sought  to  adjust  him- 
self to  it,_  making  his  way  carefully  between  ex- 
tremes of  opinion — the  hostility  of  the  leaders  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  enthusiasm,  though  super- 
ficial often,  and  unthinking,  of  the  people  on  the 
other.  He  avoided  obstacles  whenever  possible, 
faced  and  overcame  difficulties  when  they  were 
thrust  in  his  way,  varying  his  method  of  proce- 
dure as  circumstances  demanded,  but  comporting 


1^6    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

himself  in  all  situations  as  the  real  Messiah  would 
naturally  do.  He  was  able  to  look  beyond  the 
mere  present  to  the  glorious  triumph  which 
awaited  him,  confident  of  the  ultimate  outcome^ 
however  great  the  humiliation  and  suffering 
through  which  he  must  pass  before  that  outcome 
could  be  realized.  But  he  finished  the  work  which 
his  Father  gave  him  to  do,  which  he  knew  if  his 
contemporaries  did  not,  had  set  the  great  move- 
ment in  operation  and  provided  a  trained  com- 
pany of  followers  to  carry  it  on  after  him,  and 
was  at  length  received  up  into  the  glory  whence 
he  came,  henceforth  to  be  the  unseen  though  real 
and  living  head  of  his  people  and  his  kingdom. 

TOTAL  IMPRESSION 

What  was  the  total  impression,  or  the  aggre- 
gate of  results,  humanly  speaking,  of  Christ's  life 
and  work  at  the  time  he  left  the  world.'*  He  came 
to  inaugurate  a  great  world  movement:  to  what 
extent  was  he  successful.? 

If  we  are  to  judge  by  the  tangible  results  which 
were  apparent  at  the  time  of  Christ's  death,  com- 
paratively little  would  seem  to  have  been  achieved. 
To  all  appearances,  his  effort  had  been  a  failure. 
If,  however,  we  estimate  the  results  from  the  van- 
tage ground  of  the  twentieth  century,  looking  back 
over  the  history  of  Christianity  since  its  inception, 
we  might  well  exclaim,  what  did  he  not  accom- 
plish.''    And  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  now,  that 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      1^7 

even  at  that  time,  certain  definite  results,  all  bear- 
ing directly  upon  the  progress  of  the  movement, 
had  been  achieved,  and  influences  had  been  set  in 
operation  or  were  in  process  of  development,  by 
which  these  results  would  be  conserved,  and  the 
work  be  taken  up  and  carried  forward  with  a  mo- 
mentum and  power  which  nothing  could  withstand. 
To  be  sure,  Christ  left  but  a  handful  of  follow- 
ers, even  if  we  include  those  who  were  scattered 
here  and  there,  not  to  exceed  a  few  hundred  at 
most — and  the  real  loyalty  of  all  these  was  not 
fully  established — ^but  these  few  were  sufficient  to 
form  a  nucleus.  A  dozen  of  them  had  been  spe- 
cially trained  by  him  to  take  up  and  carry  for- 
ward the  movement  in  a  definite  and  formal  way, 
after  their  enduement  by  the  Spirit  as  their  final 
preparation  for  the  great  mission  which  had  been 
committed  to  them.  They  were  then  to  herald  the 
glad  tidings  and  bear  witness  of  Christ's  resur- 
rection, in  Jerusalem,  the  regions  round  about, 
even  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  Before  this,  the 
whole  movement  had  centered  in  himself.  Christ 
was  himself  the  embodiment  of  Christianity. 
Now  it  centered  primarily  in  the  apostolic  com- 
pany. The  movement  was  still  to  go  forward,  but 
under  different  conditions.  The  disciples  were  to 
bear  witness  to  Christ  and  the  new  faith  wherever 
they  went,  and  those  who  might  be  led  to  believe 
through  them  were  in  turn  to  become  witness 
bearers  to  their  fellow  men,  and  so  the  movement 


1^8     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

was  to  go  forward  through  that  and  succeeding 
ages,  until  the  whole  world  should  be  brought 
under  its  sway. 

One  result  of  Christ's  ministry  was  to  impress, 
in  some  measure,  multitudes  of  people  with  the 
truth.  If  not  all  were  convinced,  many  at  least 
were  impressed,  and  conditions  were  prepared  for 
a  favorable  reception  of  the  truth  later.  Some 
had  already  become  secret  if  not  open  followers 
of  Christ.  Still  further,  reports  of  Christ's 
teaching  and  work  had  gone  out  in  all  directions, 
as  travelers  had  come  in  contact  with  him,  and 
especially  as  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  had  visited 
Jerusalem  to  attend  the  annual  Jewish  festivals. 
Not  all  had  seen  and  heard  him,  though  many  had, 
yet  there  were  few,  probably,  who  had  not  heard 
of  him.  The  reports  of  his  teaching  and  of  his 
mighty  works  which  they  would  carry  back  to 
their  own  countries,  could  not  fail  to  exert  an  in- 
fluence in  the  way  of  preparing  the  people  for  the 
gospel  message  later,  as  the  apostles  and  others 
might  go  forth  to  proclaim  it.  This  was  another 
distinct  result  of  Christ's  work.  The  influence  of 
his  life  also,  his  silent  example,  was  not  inconsider- 
able upon  the  people  of  his  time.  No  unselfish, 
holy,  consecrated  life  is  without  its  influence. 
To  say  nothing  of  those  who  experienced  spiritual 
uplift  from  contemplating  it  or  from  contact  with 
it,  it  was  the  setting  up  of  a  standard,  a  model, 
an  ideal  life,  incomparable  and  blessed,  which 
would  be  a  legacy  to  the  world,  as  it  has  been  ever 


CHRISTIANITY  INAUGURATED      1^9 

since.     This  must  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  as- 
sets of  Christ's  life  and  ministry. 

Moreover  he  had  left  a  body  of  teachings, 
ethical  and  otherwise,  which  far  transcended  any- 
thing which  had  hitherto  been  given  to  the  world. 
Nothing  from  this  body  of  teachings  had  as  yet 
been  recorded,  but  it  was  all  there,  in  substance,  in 
the  apostles'  minds,  and  the  Spirit  would  bring 
to  their  recollection  whatever  they  failed  to  re- 
member, and  continue  to  illumine  their  minds  and 
guide  them  into  all  the  truth.  Later,  in  the  prov- 
idence of  God,  the  essentials  of  this  teaching 
were  recorded  for  the  world's  benefit.  While  not 
a  little  of  it  was  of  a  local  and  temporary  char- 
acter, no  teacher  ever  uttered  so  much  that  was 
eternal  and  abiding.  Further,  this  teaching  was 
of  a  character  to  be  universally  applicable  to  men, 
and  the  religion  Christ  sought  to  introduce  was 
intended  to  be,  was  at  least  fitted  for,  the  whole 
world.  True,  it  was  a  movement  among  the  Jews 
only,  at  first,  and  this  by  design.  Even  the  dis- 
ciples for  a  time  seemed  not  to  think  of  it  other 
than  as  a  movement  among  Jewish  people  and 
bound  up  with  the  Jewish  religion.  But  while  it 
was,  in  a  sense,  a  development  of  the  latter,  it 
had  in  it  all  the  elements  and  all  the  potency  of 
an  independent,  universal  religion,  a  religion  for 
humanity.  In  due  time  it  would  emancipate  itself 
from  its  local  environments  and  stand  out  before 
the  world  in  its  true  light  as  a  gospel  for  all  man- 
kind.    It  might  require  conflict  and  struggle  be- 


130     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

fore  this  was  accomplished,  but  this  it  was  bound, 
from  its  very  nature,  to  do,  and  as  a  matter  of 
fact  it  not  long  afterward  did.  A  prominent  fea- 
ture of  Christ's  work  was  to  set  men  to  thinking. 
The  ideas  he  promulgated  were  seminal  ideas. 
Much  that  he  did  was,  as  it  were,  out  of 
sight,  as  the  frost  works  out  of  sight  for  a  time, 
or  as  seeds  sprout  and  begin  their  growth  before 
pushing  their  way  into  the  light.  But  though  re- 
sults of  his  work  did  not  appear  at  once,  they 
began  to  show  themselves  immediately  after  his 
death  and  have  continued  to  do  so  ever  since. 

Thus  although  there  was  not  much,  seemingly, 
in  the  way  of  tangible  results  from  Christ's  life 
and  work  to  be  noted  at  the  time  of  his  departure, 
the  seeds  of  a  great  movement  were  planted. 
Mighty  influences  were  set  in  operation  which 
would  shortly  begin  to  make  themselves  felt  in  the 
world  at  large.  The  movement  which  he  inaugur- 
ated has  now  become  the  mightiest  moral  and 
spiritual  force  in  the  world,  with  a  demonstrated 
potency  in  itself  which  warrants  the  confidence 
that  it  will  ultimately,  as  originally  intended, 
bring  the  whole  world  under  its  sway,  and  Jesus 
Christ  be  recognized  as  King  of  kings  and  Lord 
of  lords,  and  his  will  be  done  universally  on  earth 
as  now  it  is  in  heaven. 


PART  II 
THE  LEADERS 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY 

We  have  seen  how  Christianity  originated.  It 
was  bom  of  Judaism,  the  Old  Testament  religion, 
the  religion  of  the  Jewish  nation.  This  formed 
its  background,  its  soil,  its  "seed  plot."  From 
this  it  unfolded.  That  which  it  found  in  germ  in 
the  Jewish  religion,  it  carried  forward  to  its  full 
development,  completing  its  intention.  But  al- 
though Christianity  was  the  offspring  of  Judaism, 
and  at  first  and  for  some  time  seemed  even  to  the 
apostles  to  be  but  an  advanced  stage  of  it,  not  to 
be  separated  from  it,  it  was  nevertheless  intended 
to  be  a  complete  and  independent  religion  by  it- 
self. Instead  of  being  for  Jews  only,  as  was 
Judaism,  it  was  designed  for  all  races  and  na- 
tions, for  humanity.  It  was  to  be  the  one  univer- 
sal and  final  religion.  This,  however,  it  could  not 
be,  so  long  as  it  was  connected  with  Judaism.  It 
must  first  be  extricated  from  it. 

How  could  this  separation  be  effected?  How 
was  Christianity  to  break  away  from  its  «Tudaic 
entanglement  and  thus  be  prepared  to  go  forth 
upon  its  world-wide  mission?  This  was  the  prob- 
lem which  confronted  it.  A  sudden  and  violent 
rupture  with  the  parent  religion  would  be  likely 
133 


134     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  do  much  harm,  might  indeed  result  in  its  being 
crushed  out  at  the  very  outset,  and  was,  if  possible, 
to  be  avoided.  What  was  manifestly  intended 
was  that  the  new  religion  should  emancipate  itself 
gradually,  by  its  own  expansive,  expulsive  power. 
The  development  of  its  own  ideas  would  in  due 
time  bring  about  this  result.  Whatever  in  the 
old  religion  was  temporary  or  provincial,  would 
fall  away.  Those  elements  in  it  which  were 
eternal  and  universal,  would  more  and  more  be- 
come manifest.  In  this  way  the  old  would  gradu- 
ally be  replaced  by  the  new.  Judaism,  having 
fulfilled  its  preparatory  mission,  would  be  super- 
seded by  Christianity. 

We  are  now  to  trace  the  successive  steps  by 
which  the  liberation  of  Christianity  from  Judaism 
was  brought  about — how  it  emerged  at  length 
from  its  Judaic  shell,  how  it  cast  off  the  swad- 
dling clothes  which  enveloped  its  infancy,  until  it 
stood  forth  in  the  vigor  and  strength  of  its  ma- 
turity, how,  in  short,  it  became  at  length  free  and 
independent.  The  struggle  was  long  and  bitter, 
but  it  resulted  in  the  complete  emancipation  of 
Christianity.  In  the  progress  of  the  movement, 
each  of  the  leaders  of  the  early  church  seems  to 
have  had  an  appointed  part.  Each  one  made  a 
contribution  to  it  peculiar  to  himself. 

Two  tendencies  early  became  manifest  among 
Christ's  followers.  On  the  one  hand,  Christianity 
was  regarded  as  a  movement  within  the  sphere  of 
Judaism,  not  inconsistent  with  it,  and  not  calling 


INTRODUCTORY  135 

for  any  relaxation  of  its  rules  and  regulations. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  thought  of  the 
apostles  and  other  Christians  for  a  considerable 
time  after  Christ's  departure  from  them.  Ac- 
cordingly, even  while  prosecuting  their  work  in 
Jerusalem,  they  continued  to  attend  the  regular 
services  of  the  Temple  and  to  engage  in  its  rites. 
To  them  Christianity  was  but  a  purer,  more 
spiritual  form  of  Judaism,  which  was  for  Jews 
alone,  save  as  Gentiles  first  became  Jews  through 
accepting  Judaism  and  submitting  to  certain 
rites  of  initiation  or  naturalization.  That  Juda- 
ism was  merely  a  preparation  for  Christianity 
seems  not  to  have  entered  their  thought. 

But  another  and  more  liberal  tendency  also 
soon  became  apparent.  It  was  the  natural  out- 
come of  the  working  in  men's  minds  of  the  vital 
truths  or  principles  of  Christianity,  and  of  provi- 
dential circumstances  which  seemed  clearly  to  call 
for  a  broader  conception  of  it  than  prevailed 
among  Jewish  Christians.  This  larger  view  had 
begun  to  dawn  upon  the  mind  of  the  martyr 
Stephen.  He  recognized  the  preparatory  char- 
acter of  the  Mosaic  system,  and  perceived  that 
with  the  advent  of  Christianity  its  mission  was 
accomplished.  The  same  thought  began  to  take 
definite  shape  in  Peter's  mind  also,  after  his  vision 
at  Joppa  and  his  experience  at  Caesarea,  although 
it  seems  not  to  have  been  given  special  prominence 
by  him  afterward.  As  a  result  of  his  preaching, 
the  Gentile  Cornelius  and  his  family  became  be- 


136    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

lievers  in  Christ.  The  manifestations  of  the  Holy 
Spirit's  presence  which  attended  the  conversion  of 
this  Roman  soldier  and  his  household  were  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  the  divine  approval. 

But  other  minds  also  were  led  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. Philip,  catching  the  thought  and  spirit  of 
Stephen,  entered  upon  a  campaign  of  evangelism 
among  the  Samaritans.  These,  though  neither 
strictly  Jews  nor  wholly  Gentiles,  gladly  received 
the  gospel,  and  the  divine  approval  was  again 
made  manifest  as  at  Csesarea.  Soon  the  expand- 
ing movement,  which  resulted  from  the  scattering 
of  Christians  from  Jerusalem  to  escape  the  perse- 
cution which  broke  out  after  Stephen's  death, 
reached  the  Gentile  city  of  Antioch.  Here  a 
church  was  formed  and  many  Gentiles  were  re- 
ceived into  it  on  the  same  conditions  as  the  Jews 
— repentance  and  faith — and  the  two  classes  of 
Christians  dwelt  together  in  harmony. 

From  Antioch,  which  shortly  became  the  cen- 
ter of  Gentile  Christianity,  the  movement  extended 
into  the  Gentile  regions  beyond.  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas, who  had  been  laboring  here  with  marked 
success,  were  formally  set  apart  for  an  evangeliz- 
ing mission.  As  a  result,  many  Gentiles  became 
believers  and  numerous  churches  were  formed  at 
important  centers  in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor. 
When,  later,  some  of  the  more  conservative  of  the 
Jerusalem  Christians  learned  that  Gentiles  were 
being  received  on  the  same  terms  as  the  Jews,  they 
sent  a  commission  to  Antioch  to  inquire  into  the 


INTRODUCTORY  137 

matter.  Their  assumption  that  no  Gentile  could 
be  received  into  Christian  fellowship  or  be  saved 
without  first  conforming  to  Jewish  rites,  particu- 
larly that  of  circumcision,  precipitated  a  contro- 
versy. This  became  so  spirited  that  it  was  de- 
cided to  refer  the  question  to  Jerusalem  for  an 
apostolic  opinion.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  were 
the  most  conspicuous  champions  of  the  broader 
view,  headed  the  delegation  from  the  Antioch 
church.  To  their  minds  to  compel  Gentile  Chris- 
tians to  submit  to  the  requirements  of  the  Jewish 
ritual — which  was  meaningless  to  them,  and  which 
even  the  Jews  themselves  recognized  as  extremely 
burdensome — was  clearly  unreasonable  and  con- 
trary to  the  spirit  and  teachings  of  the  Master. 
No  such  conditions  of  salvation  had  been  laid  down 
by  him.  The  outcome  of  the  Conference  was  a 
complete  vindication  of  the  practices  both  of  the 
Antioch  church  and  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  their 
missionary  tour  among  the  Gentiles. 

Thus  one  of  the  most  burning  questions  of  the 
times  was  settled.  Henceforth  Gentiles  might  re- 
ceive the  gospel  and  be  admitted  to  all  its  privi- 
leges upon  the  same  terms  as  the  Jews.  At  the 
same  time,  to  promote  harmony  and  good  will, 
Gentile  Christians  were  advised  to  make  certain 
concessions — which  would  require  no  sacrifice  of 
principle — to  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews.  It  was 
not  that  Paul  and  others  were  opponents  of  the 
Jewish  ritual  for  the  Jews  themselves,  if  they 
chose  to  retain  and  to  practice  it — that  was  a 


138     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

matter  of  indifference — ^but  that  they  were  jeal- 
ous of  the  rights  of  Gentile  Christians,  and  were 
not  willing  to  yield  anything  in  the  controversy 
which  would  imperil  those  rights.  The  struggle 
had  been  bitter,  and  some  of  the  defeated  party 
at  Jerusalem  sought  to  keep  it  up  for  some  time 
afterward.  They  even  sent  emissaries  to  follow 
in  Paul's  footsteps  to  undermine  and  discredit  his 
work,  thereby  causing  him  no  little  anxiety  and 
trouble.  This  is  evident  from  the  epistle  to  the 
Galatian  Christians  especially,  among  whom  these 
Judaizing  efforts  were  chiefly  carried  on,  and 
from  his  epistles  to  the  Corinthians  and  Ro- 
mans. Finally  the  edict  of  the  Jerusalem  Con- 
ference appears  to  have  been  generally  accepted, 
and  in  the  latest  New  Testament  utterances  the 
victory  for  the  broader  view  seems  to  have  been 
acknowledged. 

There  were  other  conflicts  and  trials  in  those 
early  days  of  Christianity  which  grew  out  of  false 
views  which  sprung  up  and  which  had  to  be  cor- 
rected. Sometimes  persecutions  raged  against 
the  Christian  sect.  But  the  conflict  between  Ju- 
daism and  Christianity  was  the  greatest  of  all, 
and  the  consequences  of  it  were  the  most  mo- 
mentous. Christianity  was  now  free.  It  had 
emerged  from  its  Judaic  shell,  had  thrown  off  its 
Mosaic  yoke,  and  this  freedom  was  Paul's  legacy 
to  all  succeeding  generations.  The  book  of  Acts 
closes  with  the  great  apostle  a  prisoner  at  Rome, 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire,  yet  preaching 


INTRODUCTORY  139 

the  emancipated,  universal  gospel  to  such  as  came 
to  him,  regardless  of  race,  or  nation,  or  circum- 
stances, on  the  simple  conditions  of  repentance 
and  faith  as  laid  down  by  the  Lord  himself. 
Christianity  had  proved  itself  possessed  of  the  at- 
tributes of  a  universal  religion. 

The  numerical  and  territorial  expansion  of 
Christianity  during  the  New  Testament  period 
was  exceedingly  rapid.  Under  the  mighty  im- 
pulse which  it  received  at  Pentacost,  its  original 
handful  of  adherents  soon  grew  to  large  propor- 
tions at  Jerusalem,  in  the  very  heart  of  Judaism, 
though  not  without  serious  opposition  from  the 
Jewish  authorities.  The  reports  of  the  visiting 
thousands  upon  their  return  home  from  their  at- 
tendance upon  the  Pentecostal  festival,  naturally 
did  much  toward  publishing  the  glad  tidings 
broadcast  and  preparing  the  way  for  the  labors 
of  the  apostles  and  their  successors.  The  perse- 
cution of  Christians,  which  sprung  up  immedi- 
ately after  the  death  of  Stephen  with  a  view  to 
stamping  out  the  new  movement,  proved  to  be  the 
means  of  extending  it  all  the  more  effectively.  It 
imparted  an  added  impulse  to  it  and  helped  to 
increase  its  momentum  and  power.  Wherever 
these  persecuted  Christians  went,  they  continued 
to  bear  witness  to  Christ,  and  so  believers  were 
multiplied  all  through  Judea,  and  Samaria,  and 
in  regions  beyond.  Later,  under  a  powerful  for- 
eign missionary  impulse  at  Antioch,  the  gospel 
was  proclaimed  in  Asia  Minor,  later  still  in  Mace- 


14*0     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

donia  and  Greece,  finally  in  Italy.  It  was  to  the 
world-wide  and  unceasing  activity  of  Paul  more 
than  to  any  other  person,  and  this  over  a  period 
of  some  thirty  years  or  more,  that  the  introduc- 
tion and  establishment  of  Christianity  in  Asia 
Minor  and  in  Europe  were  primarily  due.  Op- 
position to  the  movement,  whether  on  the  part  of 
the  Roman  government  or  the  conservative  Jews, 
seemed  only  to  help  it  on. 

While  Paul  and  those  associated  with  him  were 
giving  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  until  it  had 
been  planted  in  most  of  the  great  centers  of  the 
Roman  world,  the  other  apostles  were  by  no  means 
idle.  After  completing  their  work  in  and  about 
Jerusalem,  which  extended  over  a  period  of  sev- 
eral years,  they  scattered,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, into  other  lands,  laboring  especially  among 
the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  whom  they  found  in 
large  numbers  in  the  more  important  cities. 
Peter's  first  epistle  appears  to  have  been  written 
from  Babylon  where  we  know  there  were  many 
Jews  at  that  time.  No  report  of  the  labors  of  the 
apostolic  band  has  come  down  to  us.  The  book 
of  Acts  was  evidently  not  written  to  give  a  com- 
plete history  of  the  Christian  movement  and  its 
numerical  and  territorial  expansion,  so  much  as 
to  trace  the  successive  steps  by  which  Christian- 
ity became  emancipated  from  its  Judaic  fetters 
and  spread  among  the  Gentiles.  Accordingly, 
great  areas  of  apostolic  history,  which  we  would 


INTRODUCTORY  14.1 

be  glad  to  know  about,  are  passed  over  without  a 
reference. 

Thus  the  Christian  movement  went  forward, 
enlarging,  extending,  expanding,  until  it  had 
spread  pretty  much  over  the  whole  Roman  world. 
Two  centuries  later  it  had  become  the  recognized 
religion  of  the  state. 

In  the  following  pages,  in  connection  with 
studying  the  character  of  the  early  leaders  of  the 
Christian  movement,  some  of  whom  were  raised 
up  as  the  work  progressed,  an  attempt  is  made 
both  to  show  more  in  detail  the  part  of  each  in 
extending  its  bounds,  and  the  particular  contribu- 
tion which  he  made  toward  its  emancipation  from 
Judaism.  Repetitions  here  and  there  are  only 
such  as  are  inevitable  in  an  independent  study  of 
those  whose  work  sometimes  overlapped,  or  who 
were  more  or  less  prominently  related  to  the  same 
events. 


CHAPTER  II 
PETER 

Perhaps  no  one  of  the  disciples  affords  a  more 
interesting  and  suggestive  character  study  than 
Peter.  He  early  took  his  place  as  the  leading 
spirit  among  them,  as  afterward,  for  a  consider- 
able time,  he  was  the  recognized  leader  of  the 
apostles — one  of  the  few  great  leaders  of  the 
early  church.  Along  with  numerous  and  marked 
elements  of  strength  in  his  character,  there  were 
also  many  pronounced  defects  and  weaknesses. 
But  Christ  recognized  unusual  possibilities  in  him 
and  took  special  pains  with  his  training.  No 
one  of  the  twelve  received  from  him  more  rebukes 
than  did  Peter,  and  no  one,  perhaps,  more  com- 
mendations. Although  at  the  most  critical  and 
trying  time  in  the  experience  of  the  Master  Pe- 
ter's courage  and  confidence  failed  him,  and  he 
was  even  tempted  to  deny  his  Lord,  he  speedily 
recovered  himself,  and  subsequent  events  of  his 
life  abundantly  vindicated  the  wisdom  of  his  se- 
lection to  be  one  of  the  disciples. 

The  case  of  Peter  affords  a  notable  instance  of 
the  most  diverse  and  contradictory  traits  of  char- 
acter existing  side  by  side  in  the  same  person. 
At  one  time  one  spirit  or  one  set  of  principles 

142 


PETER  143 

seems  to  control,  at  another  time  another,  so  that 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  know  just  where  to 
find  him.  There  were  some  of  the  strongest 
qualities  in  Peter's  character,  and  some  of  the 
weakest;  some  to  commend  our  highest  admira- 
tion, and  some  deserving  only  pity  and  contempt. 
By  nature  he  was  warm-hearted,  impulsive,  gener- 
ous; at  the  same  time  he  was  boastful,  over-con- 
fident, often  reckless  and  fiery.  Now  he  was  bold 
and  courageous,  again  he  was  weak,  vacillating, 
cowardly.  At  one  time  he  seemed  to  rise  to  the 
heights  of  spiritual  insight,  at  another  he  was 
sluggish,  dull,  unappreciative  of  spiritual  things. 
He  was  naturally  a  man  of  action,  and  possessed 
many  elements  of  leadership,  yet  he  was  so  un- 
stable, rash,  and  full  of  inconsistencies,  that  he 
could  not  safely  be  trusted.  It  was  such  a  person 
as  this,  along  with  the  other  disciples,  that  Christ 
undertook  to  train  in  preparation  for  the  grave 
responsibilities  which  were  in  due  time  to  be  com- 
mitted to  him.  With  all  the  weakness  of  char- 
acter which  he  sometimes  manifested,  no  one  would 
more  quickly  appreciate  the  truth  inculcated  by 
Christ,  or  the  significance  of  an  object  lesson, 
than  he. 


Of  Peter's  early  life  we  know  little  beyond  the 
fact  that  he  was  reared  as  a  fisherman  on  the  west- 
em  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He  belonged  or- 
iginally to  Bethsaida  but  afterward  removed  to 


lU    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Capernaum,  where,  with  his  wife,  her  mother,  and 
his  brother  Andrew,  he  occupied  a  house.  It  is 
believed  that  he,  along  with  John  and  others,  had 
been  among  the  followers  of  John  the  Baptist. 
When  the  latter  pointed  two  of  his  disciples,  John 
and  Andrew,  to  Jesus,  one  of  them,  Andrew,  went 
at  once  and  reported  to  his  brother  Peter,  whose 
original  name  was  Simon,  that  they  had  found 
the  Messiah.  Thereupon  Peter  returned  with 
him  and  was  presented  to  the  new  Teacher. 
So  far  as  we  know,  this  is  Andrew's  chief  claim 
upon  our  remembrance.  With  prophetic  insight, 
Jesus  at  once  conferred  upon  Simon  the  surname 
of  Cephas,  or  Peter,  meaning  a  rock,  which  was 
afterward  to  supersede  the  name  which  he  had 
received  in  his  infancy. 

We  have  no  information  as  to  Peter's  early  edu- 
cation. The  fact  that  he  had  not  been  sent  to 
study  the  law  or  the  "traditions  of  the  elders"  at 
Jerusalem,  would  by  no  means  imply  an  entire  ab- 
sence of  education.  It  is  probable  that  in  com- 
mon with  other  Jewish  boys,  he  attended  the 
school  connected  with  the  synagogue  of  his  native 
town.  Great  pains  were  usually  taken  with  edu- 
cation in  these  synagogue  schools.  If  schools  of 
a  higher  grade  existed  at  that  time  in  Galilee,  as 
they  did  later,  it  is  not  impossible  that  Peter  may 
have  gone  to  one  of  them.  At  home  he  would  be 
carefully  instructed  in  the  Scriptures,  as  was  the 
custom  of  Jewish  parents.  In  the  public  services 
of  the  synagogue  he  would  hear  the  law  read  and 


PETER  14.6 

expounded  and  listen  to  discussions  upon  it.  He 
may  have  made  pilgrimages  from  time  to  time  with 
his  parents  to  attend  some  of  the  great  annual 
festivals  at  Jerusalem.  This  in  itself  would  be 
of  large  educational  value.  In  ways  such  as 
these,  including  the  discipline  of  constant  asso- 
ciation with  men  in  his  business  relations,  and  fre- 
quent contact  with  visitors  and  travelers,  Peter 
must,  to  say  the  least,  have  become  an  intelligent, 
well-informed  man.  From  residing  in  Galilee,  he 
would  be  sufficiently  removed  from  the  influence 
of  the  Pharisees  and  scribes  to  escape  much  of 
the  narrowness  and  bigotry  which  prevailed  in 
Judea.  If  he  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
as  is  supposed,  he  would  enjoy  the  added  advan- 
tages which  training  under  such  a  teacher  for  a 
season  would  impart. 

In  addition  to  the  general  training  which  the 
twelve  in  common  received  under  Christ,  each  one 
also  received  a  discipline  which  may  be  termed 
purely  personal,  something  adapted  to  his  own 
peculiar  temperament.  This  was  specially  needed 
in  the  case  of  Peter,  if  his  more  serious  defects  of 
character  were  to  be  remedied,  and  the  nobler 
possibilities  of  his  nature  were  to  be  developed. 
Time  would  be  required  for  all  this,  and  the  exer- 
cise of  rare  skill  and  patience,  but  Christ  thor- 
oughly understood  Peter's  disposition  and  needs. 
Some  lessons  would  require  many  repetitions  and 
might  frequently  involve  no  little  humiliation  on 


146     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Peter's  part,  but  the  outcome,  as  Christ  foresaw 
it,  would  abundantly  vindicate  the  effort.  The 
transformed  character  of  Peter's  later  life  and 
the  effectiveness  of  his  service  for  the  kingdom, 
together  with  the  ripened  fruitage  of  his  maturer 
experience  as  it  appears  in  his  epistles,  make  it 
evident  how  thorough  the  lessons  were  which  he 
received,  and  how  well  he  profited  by  them.  A 
few  specific  instances  will  illustrate  the  nature  of 
this  personal  training. 

There  was  Peter's  over-confidence,  for  instance, 
which  called  for  correction.  The  fault  was  a 
serious  one  and  often  brought  him  into  trouble. 
An  opportunity  to  impress  a  needed  lesson  on  the 
subject  was  afforded  at  the  time  when  Christ, 
walking  on  the  waves,  went  to  his  imperiled  dis- 
ciples on  the  lake.  They  were  frightened  as  he 
drew  near  to  them,  supposing  him  to  be  a  ghost, 
but  they  were  reassured  after  hearing  his  familiar 
voice:  "It  is  I,  be  not  afraid."  Then  Peter  was 
seized  with  a  sudden  desire  to  go  to  him.  "Lord, 
if  it  be  thou,  bid  me  come  to  thee  on  the  water." 
It  was  a  venturesome  impulse,  and  evinced  the 
height  of  presumption.  To  carry  it  out  would 
require  a  large  faith  on  Peter's  part,  and  as  yet 
his  faith  had  not  been  tested.  It  would  also  in- 
volve the  performance  of  a  special  miracle  in  his 
behalf.  Christ  appreciated  the  situation  and 
bade  him  come.  It  was  as  if  he  had  said,  "Come 
if  you  will,  make  the  experiment  if  you  desire." 
In  his  abounding  self-confidence,  Peter  over-esti- 


PETER  14.7 

mated  his  own  faith,  and  immediately  on  receiving 
permission,  stepped  over  the  vessel's  side  into  the 
water.  So  long  as  he  kept  his  gaze  fastened  in 
confidence  on  his  Lord,  all  was  well,  but  the  mo- 
ment he  withdrew  it,  as  presently  he  did,  he  was 
filled  with  fear  and  began  to  sink.  In  his  distress 
he  cried  out,  "Lord  save,  I  perish."  Whereupon 
Jesus  stretched  forth  his  hand  and  rescued  him, 
at  the  same  time  administering  the  deserved  re- 
buke, "O  thou  of  little  faith,  wherefore  didst  thou 
doubt?"  Peter  had  confidence  enough  before  he 
started,  but  in  the  actual  test  it  proved  inade- 
quate. Everything  depended  on  his  faith,  yet  at 
the  critical  moment  it  failed  him  completely.  The 
outcome  was  a  most  effective  rebuke  to  his  rash- 
ness and  presumption.  The  disclosure  of  his 
weakness  must  have  been  humiliating,  all  the  more 
so  that  the  incident  occurred  in  the  presence  of 
the  whole  company  of  the  disciples.  Perhaps  no 
one  among  them  needed  such  a  lesson  as  much  as 
he. 

At  another  time,  when  they  were  in  the  regions 
of  Caesarea  Philippi,  Christ  asked  the  question  of 
the  disciples  as  to  the  popular  impression  con- 
cerning himself.  Their  reply  was  that  it  was 
varied:  some  thought  one  thing,  some  another. 
"But  whom  say  ye  that  I  am,"  Christ  continued. 
Thereupon  Peter,  as  if  with  a  sudden  divinely  in- 
spired spiritual  insight,  declared  that  he  was  the 
Messiah.  "Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
living  God."     This  reply  was  warmly  commended 


14f8     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

by  the  Master  as  being  an  utterance  directly 
prompted  by  God  himself.  Such  knowledge  could 
not  have  been  gained  in  any  other  way. 

Then  Christ  sought  to  prepare  the  disciples' 
minds  for  the  distressful  ordeals  which  were  to 
come  upon  him  later.  It  had  been  a  notable  ad- 
vance that  they,  through  their  own  observation 
of  the  Master,  had  been  led  to  the  deliberate  con- 
clusion that  he  was  the  Messiah  whom  the  Jewish 
people  were  looking  for,  but  now  he  seeks  to 
broaden  their  view  of  what  the  Messiahship  in- 
volved. One  thing  was  suffering.  As  the  Mes- 
siah, he  must  suffer  many  things  at  Jerusalem  at 
the  hands  of  the  Jewish  leaders,  even  be  put  to 
death.  Suffering  was  a  necessary  part  of  his 
mission,  without  which  his  work  for  human  re- 
demption would  not  be  complete.  This,  indeed, 
was  foreshadowed  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  But 
Peter,  seemingly  unable  to  appreciate  this  neces- 
sity, began  vigorously  to  remonstrate.  "Be  it 
far  from  thee.  Lord.  This  shall  not  be  unto 
thee."  The  remonstrance  was  no  doubt  prompted 
primarily  by  his  love  for  his  Master,  nevertheless 
it  was  the  acme  of  presumption  for  him  to  dispute 
his  Lord's  declaration  and  try  to  dissuade  him 
from  the  clear  path  of  duty  which  had  been  marked 
out  for  him.  Moreover,  with  his  clear  spiritual  in- 
sight, Christ  discerned  the  subtle  influence  of  the 
Adversary  at  work  within  Peter's  heart  to  make 
him  the  unconscious  instrument  of  trying  to  divert 
his    Lord    from    his    heaven-appointed    mission. 


PETER  149 

The  effort  of  the  Tempter  in  the  wilderness  to  al- 
lure him  from  this  purpose  had  utterly  failed,  but 
now  by  another  means  and  in  another  way  he 
seeks  to  effect  the  same  result.  Christ's  reply  to 
Peter  was  in  terms  very  similar  to  his  reply  to  the 
Adversary  at  the  beginning.  "Get  thee  hence, 
Satan,  thou  art  an  offense  to  me,  for  thou  savorest 
not  the  things  that  be  of  God,  but  those  that  be 
of  men."  If  before  this  Peter's  confession  of 
Christ  as  the  Messiah  had  given  evidence  of  being 
from  above,  this  interruption  of  him  and  remon- 
strance seemed  to  have  been  prompted  from  below. 
He  was  being  used  by  the  Adversary  to  put  ob- 
stacles in  Christ's  way.  To  have  yielded  to 
Peter's  suggestion  would  have  meant  failure  in  his 
office  as  the  world's  Redeemer. 

The  lesson  which  Christ  gave  to  all  the  disciples 
in  humility — and  which  all  needed,  for  all  were 
ambitious  in  a  worldly  way — in  washing  their  feet, 
was  at  the  same  time  turned  specially  to  Peter's 
account.  When,  with  towel  and  basin,  Christ 
cam.e  to  the  latter,  Peter  said,  as  if  in  surprise, 
"Dost  thou  wash  my  feet?"  As  if  to  indicate  that 
he  had  a  sufficient  reason  for  what  he  did,  and 
which  should  have  satisfied  Peter,  Jesus  replied, 
"What  I  do  thou  knowest  not  now,  but  thou  shalt 
understand  hereafter."  Thereupon  Peter  ex- 
claimed with  emphasis,  "Thou  shalt  never  wash 
my  feet."  It  was  nothing  discreditable  to  him  to 
be  disturbed  at  the  thought  of  such  humiliation 
on  the  part  of  his  Lord,  but  to  persist  in  his  re- 


150     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

sistance  after  what  had  been  said  was  simply  stub- 
born disobedience.  Such  a  disposition  deserved, 
as  it  received,  a  sharp  rebuke.  "If  I  wash  thee 
not,"  said  Christ,  "thou  hast  no  part  with  me." 
This  declaration,  and  the  thought  of  being  cut 
off  from  his  Master's  sympathy  and  favor, 
brought  Peter  at  once  to  his  senses,  and  now  he 
was  ready  to  go  even  farther  in  submission  than 
had  been  required.  "Lord,"  he  meekly  said,  "not 
my  feet  only,  but  my  hands  and  my  head" — a  re- 
ply which  illustrates  the  quick  alternation  of  feel- 
ing and  of  purpose  which  was  characteristic  of 
him.  One  thing  certainly  very  much  in  Peter's 
favor,  was  the  spirit  in  which  he  accepted  these 
rebukes,  the  reason  for  which,  when  once  pointed 
out,  he  was  not  slow  to  perceive  or  to  appreciate. 
But  not  all  the  lessons  which  Peter  received 
under  this  direct  and  personal  tutorship  of  Christ 
were  of  this  negative  character.  Not  only  were 
excrescences  to  be  pruned  off,  the  positive  virtues 
needed  also  to  be  developed.  This  indeed  was  an 
aim  never  lost  sight  of,  whether  in  Christ's  train- 
ing of  the  whole  company  in  general,  or  of  indi- 
vidual members  of  it  in  particular.  Everything 
was  made  to  point  to  this  end.  Especially  did  the 
faith  of  Peter  need  to  become  strong,  stable, 
rock-like  in  its  steadfastness,  before  he  could  be  in 
the  largest  degree  useful  for  the  kingdom.  A 
number  of  instances  of  training  to  this  end  are 
recorded,  although  sometimes  these  special  lessons 
were   given  him   in   conjunction  with  James   and 


PETER  151 

John,  whose  natures  also  seemed,  like  his  own,  to 
have  been  peculiarly  receptive.  One  such  instance 
was  in  connection  with  the  restoration  to  life  of 
the  little  daughter  of  Jairus,  a  synagogue  ruler. 
Only  Peter,  James,  and  John  were  permitted  to 
go  with  Christ  and  the  sorrowing  family  into  the 
room  where  the  dead  child  lay.  Then  Christ  took 
her  by  the  hand  and  said,  "Little  maid,  I  say  unto 
thee  arise."  And  straightway  she  arose  and 
walked.  It  was  a  tremendous  miracle,  and  no 
wonder  that  it  occasioned  amazement.  The  im- 
pressions of  it  at  the  time  must  have  been  pro- 
found and  overwhelming  in  the  minds  of  the  fa- 
vored disciples,  while  the  fact  itself  and  the 
recollection  of  it  afterward,  must  have  gone  far 
toward  establishing  a  conviction  of  Christ's  divine 
character. 

Another  notable  instance  was  that  of  the  trans- 
figuration, in  which  Moses  and  Elijah  appeared  to 
Christ,  to  talk  with  him  concerning  his  coming 
decease  at  Jerusalem.  The  favored  three  were 
again  with  him.  It  must  have  been  a  never-to-be- 
forgotten  experience.  All  heaven  apparently  was 
interested  in  what  was  to  take  place.  The  voice 
from  the  cloud  declaring  that  Christ  was  the  be- 
loved Son  of  the  Father,  ought  to  have  been  suf- 
ficient, it  would  seem,  to  remove  any  lingering 
doubts  in  the  disciples'  minds  as  to  the  divine 
character  of  their  Lord.  Peter  had  the  elements 
in  him  of  a  strong  faith,  but  it  was  far  from  fixed 
and  steadfast  yet,  and  far  from  adequate  to  the 


152    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

severe  tests  to  which  it  would  be  subjected  in  the 
days  to  come.  It  was  for  this  reason,  no  doubt, 
and  to  give  him  abundant  ground  for  the  faith 
he  needed,  that  these  exceptional  privileges  were 
granted  him.  Only  in  this  way,  through  the  con- 
victions which  such  experiences  would  cause  grad- 
ually to  develop  within  him,  could  he  ever  have 
become  the  mighty  champion  for  the  truth  and 
hero  of  the  faith  which  he  did. 

But  perhaps  the  most  effective  lesson  of  a  dis- 
tinctly personal  character  which  Peter  received, 
as  it  was  certainly  most  humiliating  to  himself  in 
the  outcome,  was  in  connection  with  Christ's  trial. 
His  faith  had  been  slowly  gaining,  but  a  time  had 
now  come  when  it  would  be  put  to  the  severest 
imaginable  test,  and  not  the  faith  of  Peter  alone, 
but  that  of  all  the  disciples  as  well.  Would  they 
be  equal  to  it?  Would  Peter  especially,  who  had 
always  been  foremost  to  speak  and  to  act,  whose 
self-confidence  was  strong  and  who  had  boasted 
much,  be   able  to  endure  it? 

When  at  the  last  meeting  of  Christ  and  the 
disciples  the  night  before  his  crucifixion,  he  had 
been  telling  them  again  of  his  death  that  they 
might  not  be  altogether  taken  by  surprise,  Peter 
declared  with  great  vehemence,  as  he  had  on  a  for- 
mer occasion,  that  it  should  not  be  so.  For  him- 
self he  was  prepared  to  stand  by  his  Master  to 
the  bitter  end.  Christ  cautioned  him  against 
over-confidence  in  his  own  loyalty.  It  had  not  yet 
been  put  to  the  test  which  would  determine  just 


PETER  153 

how  strong  it  was.  In  fact,  Christ  told  him  that 
before  the  cock  should  crow,  i.  e.,  before  the  next 
morning,  he  would  even  deny  him.  "Never,"  ex- 
claimed Peter;  "no,  not  even  if  I  should  die  with 
you."  He  little  realized  the  sad  self-revelation 
of  his  own  weakness  which  he  would  witness  even 
within  the  next  few  hours. 

After  Christ  was  actually  arrested  and  bound, 
the  disciples,  filled  with  fear,  and  panic  stricken, 
all  fled.  John,  recovering  himself,  followed  him 
even  into  the  palace  of  the  High  Priest  Caiaphas, 
to  which  he  was  taken  for  examination  and  trial. 
He  alone  of  the  eleven — for  there  were  only 
eleven  now — kept  close  to  the  Lord  in  this  hour  of 
trial.  Later  Peter  appeared  upon  the  scene,  but 
when  he  was  asked  again  and  again  by  a  servant 
girl  and  others  in  the  palace  court  as  to  his  being 
a  member  of  the  prisoner's  company,  his  courage 
foresook  him,  he  became  angry  and  indignantly 
denied  it,  repeating  his  denial  several  times  in  suc- 
cession and  emphasizing  it  with  an  oath.  "I 
know  not  the  man,"  he  said.  Thereupon  the 
sound  of  the  cock-crowing  was  heard,  and  in- 
stantly the  Savior's  warning  and  prediction 
flashed  into  his  mind.  Yes,  Peter,  boastful,  self- 
confident,  the  leader  of  the  disciples,  had  fallen! 
When  the  test  came,  his  loyalty  was  not  equal  to 
it.  Not  even  Peter  could  be  depended  upon  to 
stand  by  his  Lord  at  a  time  when,  if  ever,  he  most 
needed  the  support  of  human  sympathy.  It  was 
at  this  same  moment  that  Christ  from  within  the 


154     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

palace  turned  and  looked  upon  Peter  in  the  court. 
Peter  caught  that  look,  not  of  anger  or  reproach, 
but  a  tender,  sorrowful  look  of  love.  That  look 
brought  him  to  a  full  realization  of  what  he  had 
done.  He  had  actually  denied  with  an  oath,  in 
a  moment  of  temptation,  the  One  to  whom  he  owed 
so  much,  and  whom  he  had  sworn  to  defend  even 
to  the  death.  Then  the  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  of  his  nature  were  broken  up,  and  he  went  out 
and  wept  bitterly. 

And  all  this  was  brought  about  by  a  look.  In 
the  circumstances,  it  was  a  most  effective  rebuke. 
That  moment  was  no  doubt  the  turning  point  in 
Peter's  life.  From  this  time  forward  he  was  a 
changed  man.  Not  that  he  was  at  once  divested 
of  his  faults  or  freed  from  his  weaknesses,  or  sud- 
denly made  strong  and  steadfast,  but  that  now  he 
began  to  appreciate,  as  not  before,  how  much  he 
owed  his  Master,  and  how  basely  he  had  treated 
him.  The  realization  of  all  this  could  hardly  fail 
of  steadying  his  nature,  of  rendering  him  more 
careful  and  thoughtful,  and  of  preparing  him  for 
a  more  settled  and  abiding  personal  devotion  than 
ever  before.  Sometimes  it  is  the  best  possible 
preparation  for  better  things  in  one's  life  to  be- 
come fully  and  humiliatingly  aware  of  one's  own 
weaknesses  and  defects.  Certain  it  is  that  never 
again,  so  far  as  we  have  record,  did  Peter  become 
disloyal  to  his  Lord.  He  may  have  shown  weak- 
ness, but  never  disloyalty.  No  one,  indeed,  of  all 
the  discipleSj  was  more  enthusiastically  devoted  to 


PETER  155 

the  Master's  service,  or  accomplished  more,  or  as 
much,  for  his  cause. 

But  the  loving  interest  of  the  Master  in  his 
disciples  and  in  their  preparation  for  their  future 
work  did  not  cease  with  his  crucifixion.  This  was 
what  was  chiefly  on  his  mind  after  his  resurrec- 
tion. By  his  various  appearances  to  them,  their 
faith  at  length  would  become  unalterably  estab- 
lished. Without  such  faith  they  would  not  be 
able  to  endure  the  hardships  and  trials  which 
would  certainly  befall  them  in  the  mighty  work 
which  they  were  to  undertake.  Peter,  especially, 
needed  such  an  experience  to  establish  his  faith. 
This  Jesus  recognized,  and  so  continued  his  spe- 
cial training,  not  only  giving  him  the  advantage 
of  his  several  appearances  to  the  whole  company 
of  the  disciples,  but  on  one  occasion  appearing  to 
him  by  himself.  The  details  of  that  appearance 
are  wholly  unknown  to  us. 

The  final  lesson  to  Peter  of  which  we  know, 
was  in  connection  with  Christ's  appearance  to 
several  of  the  disciples  on  the  shore  of  Galilee. 
At  this  time  he  probed  Peter's  heart  in  such  a 
way  that  any  hidden  weakness  or  disloyalty  re- 
maining would  not  fail  to  be  brought  to  light. 
He  had  boasted  that  although  all  men  should  be 
offended,  he  himself  would  not  be,  and  yet  he  had 
denied  his  Lord,  and  this  three  times  in  succes- 
sion. It  was  fitting  that  he  should  thrice  con- 
fess him,  and  so  Christ  asked  him,  as  many  times, 
the  question,  "Simon,  son  of  John,  lovest  thou 


156    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

me?"  Peter  felt  hurt  at  these  repetitions,  but 
his  failure  had  taught  him  humility.  "Lord,"  he 
said,  "thou  knowest  all  things.  Thou  knowest 
that  I  love  thee." 

After  such  an  experience,  he  can  never  waver 
again.  Now  he  is  ready,  not  boastfully,  but 
humbly,  to  follow  his  Master  wherever  he  may 
direct,  even  if  to  martyrdom,  as  Christ  had  not 
vaguely  intimated  that  he  might  be  called  to  do. 
Henceforth  his  loyalty  will  be  above  suspicion. 
Christ's  purpose  in  Peter's  training  has  been  ac- 
complished. His  case  has  been  one  of  peculiar 
difficulty,  but  the  root  of  the  matter  had  been 
in  him  all  the  time.  And  now,  with  the  final  train- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  do  a  work  within  him 
which  not  even  Christ  himself  could  do — a  training 
in  fact  which  did  not  cease  with  Pentecost  but 
went  forward  with  ever-enlarging  and  deepening 
success  as  long  as  he  lived — he  will  be  ready  for 
valiant,   lifelong   Christian   service. 

II 

As  we  pass  from  the  Gospels  into  the  book  of 
Acts,  we  are  impressed  with  the  different  type  of 
character  presented  to  us  in  connection  with  the 
name  of  Peter.  It  seems  to  be  entirely  trans- 
formed from  what  it  was  during  his  discipleship. 
Then  he  was  impulsive,  boastful,  rash,  always 
foremost  among  the  disciples  to  speak  and  to  act, 
and  yet  the  one,  of  them  all,  to  make  the  most 
humiliating  failure  at  length.     But  now  the  de- 


PETER  157 

fects  of  his  character  seem  largely  to  have  been 
remedied,  its  excrescences  to  have  been  removed, 
its  weaknesses  to  have  given  place  to  strength. 
Peter  stands  before  us  as  a  moral  hero,  upborne  by 
a  steady  and  sustained  courage  in  the  midst  of 
most  trying,  even  perilous  conditions.  He  is  a 
leader  of  the  apostles,  open-minded,  progressive, 
and  this  leadership  in  the  early  church  he  nobly 
maintained  for  many  years. 

How  are  we  to  account  for  this  transition? 
What  was  it  which  led  to  so  pronounced  a  change, 
and  to  a  faith  and  courage  on  his  part  such  as 
he  had  never  exhibited  before?  It  was  the  trans- 
forming work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Christ  had 
carried  his  personal  training  of  the  disciples  as 
far  as  he  could.  But  there  were  features  of  the 
discipline  which  they  needed  which  could  only  be 
realized  by  the  working  of  the  grace  of  God  at 
the  very  core  of  their  being.  Only  in  this  way 
could  their  previous  training  be  gathered  up  and 
carried  forward  to  its  full  fruition.  It  was  with 
this  in  view  that  Christ  bade  the  disciples  remain 
in  Jerusalem,  after  his  departure  from  them,  until 
the  Spirit  should  be  poured  out — which  he  gave 
them  to  understand  was  imminent — and  they 
should  be  endued  with  power  from  on  high.  Af- 
ter ten  days  of  waiting  and  of  prayer,  the  Pente- 
costal effusion  came,  and  with  it  the  promised 
enduement.  There  were  marked  external  but  tem- 
porary manifestations  of  the  Spirit's  presence 
and  power,  but  the  effect  upon  the  disciples  was 


158    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

deep,  radical,  and  permanent.  All  were  quickened 
to  a  new  energy.  The  minds  of  all  were  illumined 
in  regard  to  spiritual  things.  Fresh  light  was 
thrown  upon  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  which 
constituted  their  Bible,  and  many  of  Christ's 
dimly  understood  teachings  were  recalled  and 
their  significance  made  clear.  Everything  ap- 
peared to  the  disciples  in  a  new  light,  and  a  con- 
suming desire  possessed  them  to  witness  for  their 
Master  and  in  every  possible  way  to  make  the 
glad  tidings  known  to  men,  even  to  the  earth's 
remotest  bounds. 

Then  it  was,  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  throng 
of  people,  who  had  been  drawn  together  by  re- 
ports which  had  been  noised  abroad  through  the 
city  of  the  unusual  manifestations  among  the  dis- 
ciples, that  Peter  stood  up  with  the  eleven  others 
— the  place  of  Judas  having  now  been  filled — and 
as  their  spokesman  gave  powerful  witness  to  the 
resurrection  of  their  Lord  from  the  dead  and  ex- 
plained its  mighty  import.  He  declared  that 
Jesus  was  the  long-expected  Messiah,  that  he 
gave  every  evidence  of  being  so,  but  they,  the 
Jews,  had  not  only  rejected,  but  had  crucified 
him.  This  crucified  One  had  risen  from  the  dead 
— God  had  raised  him  up.  They,  the  disciples, 
were  witnesses  of  this  great  fact.  Furthermore, 
God  had  exalted  this  same  Jesus  to  his  own  right 
hand  on  high,  where  all  power  had  been  com- 
mitted to  him  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  by  whom 
alone   the   world   would   at   length   be   judged   in 


PETER  159 

righteousness.  Then  Peter  appealed  to  his  hear- 
ers to  repent  of  their  sins  and  to  give  him  their 
allegiance,  the  living  One,  in  whom  alone  were 
forgiveness  and  salvation.  And  so  convincing 
were  his  arguments,  so  conscience-smiting  his 
charges,  that  about  three  thousand  of  his  auditors 
were  then  and  there  converted  and  became  Christ's 
followers. 

It  was  a  bold  and  courageous  thing  for  Peter 
to  do,  thus  to  stand  up  before  so  mighty  a  throng, 
presumably  unsympathetic,  and  address  it  as  he 
did.  It  was  in  striking  contrast,  certainly,  with 
the  cowardice  which  he  had  exhibited  but  a  few 
weeks  before,  when  he  denied,  with  an  oath,  that 
he  even  knew  Jesus.  But  from  this  time  on,  he 
and  all  the  disciples — nothing  daunted  by  ob- 
stacles or  threats  of  punishment  by  the  authori- 
ties— continued  courageously  to  bear  their  testi- 
mony to  the  risen  and  now  glorified  Lord. 
Especially  was  this  the  case  with  Peter  and  John, 
whose  early  friendship  as  fishermen  seems  to  have 
ripened  during  their  discipleship  together,  and 
who  were  now  conspicuously  associated  in  the 
work  of  the  kingdom.  The  new  movement  had 
received  a  mighty  impulse  at  Pentecost  and  in 
connection  with  the  events  immediately  following 
it.  Peter,  its  recognized  leader,  was  proving  him- 
self to  be  the  man  for  the  hour.  His  wisdom  and 
prudence,  his  tact  and  intelligence,  by  which  he 
knew  exactly  what  to  say  and  do,  were  in  marked 
contrast  with  his  previous  unwisdom  and  tactless- 


160    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

ness,  while  his  boldness  and  courage  must  have 
been  a  surprise  even  to  himself. 

Not  long  after  the  remarkable  scenes  at  Pente- 
cost, occurred  the  healing,  by  Peter  and  John,  of 
the  cripple  at  the  gate  Beautiful  of  the  Temple. 
In  the  name  of  the  risen  and  ascended  Lord,  Peter 
had  bidden  this  cripple  of  many  years  to  arise  and 
walk,  which  he  at  once  proceeded  to  do,  to  the 
great  astonishment  of  all  who  were  present.  Nat- 
urally a  crowd  collected,  whereupon  Peter  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  and  again  bore 
witness  for  his  Master.  And  such  was  the  power 
with  which,  filled  with  the  Spirit,  he  spoke,  that 
again,  as  at  Pentecost,  many  were  added  to 
Christ's  followers. 

But  such  boldness  of  address  and  such  charges 
as  Peter  made  were  exceedingly  distasteful,  nat- 
urally, to  the  Jewish  leaders,  especially  to  the 
Sadducees,  and  the  two  disciples  were  arrested  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  thrust  into  prison,  to  ap- 
pear before  the  authorities  on  the  morrow.  At 
that  time,  when  asked  by  what  authority  or  power 
they  had  wrought  the  miracle,  Peter,  filled  with 
the  Holy  Spirit,  boldly  declared  that  it  was  in 
the  name  of  Christ,  whom  they,  the  Jewish  lead- 
ers, had  crucified,  but  whom  God  had  raised  from 
the  dead  and  exalted  to  the  highest  position,  and 
in  whose  name  alone  there  was  salvation.  Such 
boldness  on  the  part  of  these  unknown  and  unlet- 
tered men  was  a  great  surprise  to  the  Council, 
but  the  miracle  itself  could  not  be  denied — the  re- 


PETER  161 

stored  cripple  was  there — and  nothing  could  be 
done  to  the  two  men  but  to  rebuke  them  and  for- 
bid them  to  preach  further  in  the  hated  Name. 
Then  Peter  made  answer,  "Whether  it  is  right  in 
the  sight  of  God  to  hearken  to  you  rather  than 
unto  God,  judge  ye,  for  we  cannot  but  speak  the 
things  we  have  seen  and  heard."  In  other  words, 
they  proposed  to  follow  their  own  God-given  con- 
victions, whatever  the  consequences,  even  if  they 
were  led  to  defy  the  Jewish  authorities.  Being 
dismissed,  they  went  to  their  own  company  and 
reported  all  that  had  been  said  to  them,  where- 
upon all  lifted  up  their  voices  with  thanksgiving 
and  praise,  and  prayed  with  great  earnestness 
that  they  might  continue  to  speak  the  Word  witH 
all  boldness,  and  that  the  divine  power  might  be 
more  and  more  manifest  among  the  people. 

As  a  result  of  the  labors  of  the  apostles,  and 
especially  of  the  outspoken  testimony  of  Peter 
and  the  mighty  works  wrought  by  him  in  the  name 
of  Christ,  there  came  together,  we  read,  multi- 
tudes of  people  from  the  cities'  and  towns  round 
about  Jerusalem,  bringing  their  sick  folk  with 
them  and  those  that  were  vexed  with  unclean 
spirits,  and  they  were  all  healed,  while  many  were 
all  the  time  added  to  the  growing  number  of  be- 
lievers. 

But  as  the  work  went  on,  the  Jewish  officials 
became  more  and  more  disturbed,  not  knowing  to 
what  the  movement  might  grow.  So  under  some 
pretext  they  caused  the  entire  twelve  apostles  to 


16^    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

be  arrested  and  brought  before  them.  "Did  we 
not  strictly  charge,"  they  said,  "that  you  no  more 
teach  in  this  Name?  And  behold  ye  have  filled 
Jerusalem  with  your  teaching,  and  intend  to 
bring  this  man's  blood  upon  us."  Then  Peter  and 
the  apostles  answered — Peter  still  foremost  and 
probably  speaking  for  them  all — "We  must  obey 
God  rather  than  men."  Continuing,  and  recall- 
ing, possibly,  that  they  were  standing  in  the  very 
place  their  Master  had  stood  when  he  was  con- 
demned, and  that  they  were  addressing  the  same 
Jewish  leaders  who  had  condemned  him,  he  said, 
"The  God  of  our  fathers  raised  up  Jesus,  whom 
ye  slew,  hanging  him  on  a  tree.  Him  did  God  ex- 
alt with  his  right  hand  to  be  a  prince  and  a 
savior,  to  give  repentance  to  Israel  and  remis- 
sion of  sins.  And  we  are  witnesses  of  these  things, 
and  so  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  whom  God  hath  given 
to  them  that  obey  him." 

This  address  so  cut  the  officials  to  heart  that 
they  were  minded  to  slay  the  apostles,  but  wiser 
counsels  finally  prevailed,  through  the  influence, 
especially,  of  Gamaliel,  a  doctor  of  the  law  who 
was  held  in  high  esteem  among  them,  and  the 
apostles,  after  being  beaten  and  being  again 
charged  not  to  speak  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  were 
dismissed.  And  again,  as  before,  they  rejoiced 
that  they  were  counted  worthy  to  suffer  dishonor 
for  the  Name.  And  every  day,  in  the  Temple 
and  at  home,  they  ceased  not  to  teach  and  to 
preach  Jesus  as  the  Christ. 


PETER  163 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  this  is  the  same 
Peter  who  basely  denied  his  Lord  only  a  few  weeks 
before,  and  yet  it  is,  but  now  the  energy  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  possesses  him,  and  it  matters  not 
whether  it  is  before  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the 
nation  or  the  humblest  men  on  the  street,  he  is 
ready,  with  unflinching  courage,  to  bear  witness 
to  his  Lord. 

We  have  now  to  notice  Peter's  courage  and 
leadership  in  another  and  different  way  than  be- 
fore those  who  were  not  in  sympathy  with  or  were 
hostile  to  the  new  movement.  The  time  was  at 
hand  when  he  would  feel  obliged  to  take  a  cour- 
ageous stand  before  his  own  friends — which  some- 
times requires  more  stamina  and  force  of  char- 
acter to  do  than  to  face  one's  out  and  out 
enemies — as  to  whether  the  gospel,  with  all  its 
privileges,  should  be  off^ered  to  the  Gentiles  as  well 
as  to  the  Jews,  and  upon  the  same  terms. 
Hitherto  it  had  been  presented  to  the  Jews  only, 
or  to  such  Gentiles — called  proselytes — as  had 
virtually  become  Jews  by  accepting  and  practicing 
certain  rites  of  the  Jewish  religion.  It  was  the 
opinion  of  most  of  the  Jews  who  had  become 
Christian  believers  that  the  latter  was  essential, 
viz: — that  it  was  only  through  the  door  of  Juda- 
ism that  Gentiles  might  receive  the  benefits  of  the 
gospel,  although  the  ceremonial  requirements  of 
the  old  Mosaic  system,  much  as  they  might  mean 
to    the    Jews,    were    meaningless    to   them.     The 


164    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

pride  of  race  and  sense  of  exclusiveness  in  which 
the  Jews  had  been  trained,  and  their  prejudice 
against  the  Gentiles,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
religious  equality  with  them,  were  deep  and 
strong — we  have  little  idea,  probably,  how  strong 
— and  any  such  view  as  that  of  giving  the  gospel 
to  Gentiles  and  on  the  same  terms  with  themselves, 
would  not  fail  to  stir  up  the  most  determined  op- 
position. And  yet  this  question  was  bound, 
sooner  or  later,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  to 
come  up,  and  it  would  have  to  be  met  with  cour- 
age, if  the  new  religious  movement  was  to  develop 
into  anything  more  than  a  mere  Jewish  sect.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  for  years  a  burning  ques- 
tion in  the  early  church,  and  it  came  near  rending 
it  in  twain. 

Stephen  had  already  gained  a  glimpse  of  the 
larger  mission  of  the  gospel,  and  had  given  ex- 
pression to  his  broader  views.  But  it  really  fell 
to  Peter  to  take  the  leadership  in  putting  these 
views  in  practice,  and  thus  initiating  this  advance 
movement.  It  was  not  a  deliberately  thought  out 
plan  on  his  part  to  do  this,  rather  he  was  driven 
to  take  the  step  by  a  series  of  providences  which 
he  interpreted — which  he  could  hardly  do  other- 
wise than  interpret — as  intended  to  encourage  and 
to  call  for  this  very  thing.  It  was  in  this  way 
that  the  conviction  gradually  grew  upon  him  that 
the  gospel  was  for  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  for  the 
Jews,  and  when  he  was  finally  persuaded  that  this 
actually  was  the  will  of  God,  he  was  as  resolute 


PETER  165 

and  bold  to  act  upon  it,  even  in  face  of  the  cer- 
tain opposition  of  many  in  the  Christian  company, 
as  he  had  all  along  been  bold  and  courageous  in 
proclaiming  the  gospel  itself  in  the  face  of  hostile 
Jewish  leaders. 

It  came  about  in  this  way.  Peter's  work  led 
him  at  length  to  the  western  part  of  Judea.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  this  question  of  the  gospel 
for  all  men  may  have  arisen  in  his  mind  before 
this — not  settled  as  yet,  for  Peter  was  a  Jew,  with 
the  narrow  spirit  of  exclusiveness  of  his  country- 
men— but  still  it  may  have  been  before  him.  At 
Joppa,  one  day,  "he  fell  into  a  trance  and  be- 
holdeth  the  heaven  opened  and  a  certain  vessel 
descending,  as  it  were  a  great  sheet,  let  down  by 
four  corners  upon  the  earth:  wherein  were  all 
manner  of  four-footed  beasts  and  creeping  things 
of  the  earth  and  birds  of  the  heaven.  And  there 
came  a  voice  to  him.  Rise,  Peter:  kill  and  eat. 
But  Peter  said.  Not  so.  Lord,  for  I  have  never 
eaten  anything  that  is  common  and  unclean.  And 
a  voice  came  unto  him  again  the  second  time. 
What  God  hath  cleansed,  make  not  thou  common. 
And  this  was  done  thrice:  and  straightway  the 
vessel  was  received  up  into  heaven." 

Peter  was  much  perplexed  as  to  what  the  mean- 
ing of  this  vision  might  be,  for  that  it  had  some 
profound  significance,  he  was  satisfied.  In  the 
midst  of  his  perplexity  messengers  arrived  from 
Caesarea  from  an  officer. in  the  Roman  army  named 
Cornelius,  who  wished  to  see  him  and  to  receive 


166    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

instruction  from  him  in  regard  to  the  new  reli- 
gion. Already  the  Spirit  had  given  Peter  inti- 
mation of  what  was  coming,  and  had  bidden  him 
to  go  as  invited,  nothing  doubting.  So  when  the 
messengers  stated  to  him  their  mission,  he  pre- 
pared to  return  with  them.  He  took  several  of 
the  brethren  of  Joppa  with  him,  possibly  as  a 
matter  of  precaution.  It  was  neither  a  Jew  nor 
a  Jewish  proselyte  who  had  invited  him,  but  a 
Gentile,  and  he  might  be  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  question  which  had  already  been  giving 
him  uneasiness.  If  so,  it  might  be  important  to 
have  witnesses  present,  especially  if  he  should  af- 
terward be  called  upon  by  the  Jerusalem  authori- 
ties to  explain  his  course.  Reaching  Ca?sarea,  he 
was  cordially  received  by  Cornelius,  who  explained 
to  him  the  circumstances  which  had  led  him  to 
send  for  the  apostle.  He,  too,  had  had  a  vision 
from  God,  and  in  that  vision  he  had  been  directed 
to  send  messengers  to  Peter  at  Joppa. 

Then  the  meaning  of  his  own  strange  vision 
began  to  dawn  on  Peter.  He  saw  that  it  meant 
that  God  was  no  respecter  of  persons.  The 
Gentiles  were  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  common 
or  ceremonially  unclean  and  for  that  reason  to 
be  excluded  from  gospel  privileges.  And  al- 
though it  was  a  great  step  for  Peter  to  take,  and 
a  courageous  one,  to  go  directly  in  the  face  of  his 
own  Jewish  training  and  prejudices,  he  overcame 
the  scruples  which  caused  him  to  hesitate,  and 
preached  the  gospel  to  this  seeking  Gentile  and 


PETER  167 

his  family,  offering  it  to  them  on  the  same  terms 
as  he  had  been  accustomed  to  offer  it  to  the  Jews. 
To  the  amazement  of  the  Jewish  Christians  who 
had  accompanied  him,  the  Holy  Spirit  fell  on  the 
company  of  listeners  as  upon  the  disciples  at 
Pentecost,  and  Cornelius  and  his  household  were 
baptized  and  officially  recognized  by  Peter  as 
Christian  believers.  The  question  had  seemed  to 
answer  itself.  Peter's  mind  was  at  last  clear. 
The  gospel  was  not  for  Jews  exclusively.  It 
was  for  Gentiles  as  well,  for  man  as  man,  upon  the 
same  terms  for  all.  God  had  signalized  his  ap- 
proval of  Peter's  course  by  the  gift  of  the  Spirit 
to  these  Gentiles.  There  might  be  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  more  conservative  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, serious  opposition,  but  there  Peter  will 
stand,  and  nothing  will  move  him  from  his  posi- 
tion. 

No  sooner  was  word  of  what  had  taken  place 
at  Caesarea  received  at  Jerusalem  than  that 
happened  which  was  to  have  been  expected. 
It  created  a  great  stir,  and  Peter  was  called 
to  an  account  for  what  he  had  done.  There- 
upon he  explained  the  circumstances  Tully  by 
which  he  felt  justified  in  his  course — the 
preparatory  vision  at  Joppa,  the  call  im- 
mediately afterwards  to  go  to  Cassarea,  his  own 
reluctance,  and  yet  how  he  had  been  bidden  by 
the  Spirit  to  go,  nothing  doubting,  how  he  had 
found  the  Gentile  and  his  family  waiting  and 
eager  to  learn  of  the  new  religion,  how  he  had 


168    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

felt  impelled  to  declare  it  to  them,  and  how  the 
approval  of  God  had  been  apparent  in  the  be- 
stowal of  the  Spirit  upon  them.  In  spite  of  his 
own  scruples,  he  had  become  convinced  that  the 
gospel  was  intended  for  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  the 
Jews,  and  upon  precisely  the  same  terms.  After 
this  frank  and  unanswerable  explanation,  which 
was  at  the  same  time  a  self-vindication,  those  who 
had  criticised  Peter's  course  held  their  peace. 
Not  that  they  were  fully  satisfied — subsequent 
events  showed  that  they  were  not — ^but  they 
doubtless  felt  that  this  might  be  passed  by  as 
something  exceptional.  It  was  not,  at  any  rate, 
intended  to  establish  a  precedent  for  the  future. 

But  although  nothing  further  was  heard  on 
the  subject  for  a  considerable  time — no  other  in- 
stances of  the  kind  occurring  in  that  vicinity — it 
was  still  a  great  step  in  advance  which  had  been 
taken,  and  its  influence  on  the  future  procedure 
of  the  church  must  have  been  considerable.  Peter 
had  taken  the  initiative,  and  this  he  had  done  with 
the  courage  which  was  now  becoming  character- 
istic of  him. 

Strange  as  it  appears  to  us  that  such  a  ques- 
tion, which  seems  so  simple  and  plain  upon  its 
very  face,  should  have  so  agitated  Christian  peo- 
ple of  the  time,  it  was  nevertheless  felt  to  be  one 
of  tremendous  import  to  the  Jews,  as  it  involved 
the  very  existence  and  stability  of  the  entire  reli- 
gious system  which  had  prevailed  among  them  for 
centuries.     It  dated  back  to  the  time  of  Moses — 


PETER  169 

even,  In  some  aspects  of  it,  to  the  patriarch  Abra- 
ham himself,  the  founder  of  their  race. 

Meanwhile  events  were  transpiring  In  another 
quarter  by  which  this  whole  question  of  giving 
the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  would  ultimately  have 
to  be  faced,  and  a  final  and  formal  decision  be 
made  In  regard  to  It.  Other  Christian  believers 
were  being  led,  by  providential  circumstances,  to 
take  the  same  large  view  of  the  scope  of  the  gospel 
which  Peter  had  taken.  At  Antloch  a  work  had 
developed  as  growing  out  of  the  dispersion  of 
Christian  believers  from  Jerusalem  at  the  time 
of  the  persecution  which  arose  on  the  death  of 
Stephen,  by  which  many  Gentiles  had  become  con- 
verts to  the  new  faith.  When  the  leaders  at  Jeru- 
salem were  advised  of  this,  they  at  once  sent 
Barnabas,  In  whose  piety  and  judgment  there  was 
large  confidence,  to  investigate.  He  did  so,  and 
was  constrained  to  acquiesce  In  the  situation,  not 
only  being  satisfied  that  the  movement  was  of 
God,  but  to  help  It  on  by  his  personal  efforts.  As 
the  work  grew  upon  his  hands,  he  was  led  to  seek 
out  Paul,  the  converted  persecutor,  who  had  now 
for  a  number  of  years  been  laboring  In  compara- 
tive obscurity  in  his  native  Cillcia,  to  assist  him. 
A  year  later,  after  being  formally  set  apart  for 
the  purpose,  these  two  men  made  a  missionary 
tour  through  Central  Asia  Minor,  preaching  the 
word  to  Jews  and  Gentiles  alike,  and  founding  a 
number   of   churches   In   Important   cities.     Soon 


170    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

after  their  return  to  Antioch,  the  question  as  be- 
tween the  narrower  and  the  broader  view  of  the 
gospel  and  its  mission  was  thrust  upon  them. 
Before  this  time  it  had  been  ignored.  Gentiles 
had  been  placed  upon  the  same  footing  with  the 
Jews  in  the  matter  of  the  gospel  and  its  privileges. 
But  now  certain  of  the  more  rigid  and  conservative 
Jewish  Christians  from  Jerusalem  had  come  down 
to  Antioch — possibly  for  this  very  purpose — and 
at  once  began  to  agitate  the  subject,  saying  that 
except  a  man  was  circumcised — a  rite  which  stood 
for  the  whole  Mosaic  system — he  could  not  be 
saved.  In  other  words,  in  order  to  salvation,  a 
Gentile  must  first  become  a  Jew  by  accepting  this 
distinctively  Jewish  rite.  The  right  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  to  do  as  they  had  all  along  been  doing, 
i.  e.,  offering  the  gospel  upon  the  same  terms  to 
Jews  and  Gentiles  alike,  even  though  God's  bless- 
ing had  seemed  to  attend  them  in  so  doing,  was 
called  in  question.  So  far,  in  fact,  did  these 
Judaizing  teachers  carry  the  matter,  that  the 
harmony  of  the  church  and  the  success  of  the 
Antioch  work  were  seriously  threatened.  Finally 
it  was  decided  to  refer  the  whole  matter  to  the 
leaders  at  Jerusalem,  and  this  was  accordingly 
done.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  the  recognized  cham- 
pions of  the  larger  and  broader  view,  headed  the 
delegation  from  the  Antioch  church. 

It  is  here,  in  this  important  Jerusalem  Confer- 
ence— ^which  will  be  considered  more  in  detail  in 
our  study  of  Paul — that  we  have  our  last  view  of 


PETER  171 

Peter  so  far  as  the  book  of  Acts  is  concerned. 
There  was  a  strong  feeling  among  many  in  the 
Jerusalem  church  against  the  broader  view.  Not 
even  the  experience  of  Peter  at  Cassarea  several 
years  before  had  permanently  satisfied  all,  al- 
though no  doubt  many  were  influenced  by  it  to  a 
more  liberal  attitude  on  the  subject.  Naturally, 
at  such  a  conference  Peter  would  be  present  and 
be  likely  to  be  heard.  When  he,  among  others, 
was  called  upon  to  express  his  views,  he  did  so  in 
no  uncertain  way.  His  sympathies,  his  convic- 
tions, were  clearly  with  Paul,  in  whose  successful 
work  among  the  Gentiles  he  no  doubt  rejoiced. 
In  his  address  he  rehearsed  the  steps  by  which 
he  had  himself  been  led  to  his  convictions  on  the 
subject.  By  this  experience  he  had  been  taught 
the  great  lesson,  which  is  as  true  now  as  it  was 
then,  that  it  is  not  at  all  by  external  rites  and 
ceremonies,  Jewish  or  otherwise,  but  by  the  grace 
of  God  within  the  hearty  and  by  that  alone,  that 
anyone  is  ever  saved.  In  this  way  Gentiles  were 
saved  as  well  as  Jews. 

This  address  of  Peter  did  much  to  clear  the 
atmosphere,  and  after  full  discussion,  during 
which  Paul  and  Barnabas  rehearsed  the  story  of 
their  work  among  the  Gentiles,  the  broader  view, 
as  championed  and  put  in  practice  by  them,  pre- 
vailed. Although  some  further  trouble  was  oc- 
casioned later  by  certain  unreconciled  elements 
among  the  Jewish  Christians,  the  great  question 
was  really  once  for  all  and  for  all  time  settled, 


112    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

that  the  gospel  was  to  be  given  to  all  classes  and 
conditions  of  men,  everywhere,  upon  the  same 
terms. 

In  the  settlement  of  this  question,  Peter  had 
courageously  borne  his  part.  Who  shall  say  that 
without  his  influence  and  efl*orts,  the  same  decisive 
result  would  have  then  been  reached.''  Of  course 
it  would  be,  sooner  or  later,  but  it  was  something 
to  have  had  a  hand  in  shaping  things  at  that  early 
stage  of  the  development  of  Christianity,  and  of 
shaping  them  right.  Now  the  wall  of  partition 
between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  broken  down,  never 
again  permanently  to  be  raised.  From  this  time 
forward  the  real  center  of  the  Christian  movement 
was  transferred  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  and 
thenceforth  Paul  became  its  leading  spirit.  Peter 
recognized  his  special  mission  as  being  more  par- 
ticularly to  his  own  countrymen,  as  Paul's  was  to 
the  Gentiles,  and  so  far  as  appears,  it  was  among 
the  Jews  that  he  labored  during  the  remainder  of 
Jiis  life.  Why  the  story  of  his  life  is  not  con- 
tinued in  the  book  of  Acts  beyond  the  account  of 
this  Conference  at  Jerusalem  is  not  clear,  unless 
it  be,  as  seems  probable,  that  the  aim  of  the  writer 
was  not  so  much  to  record  the  history  of  the 
movement  in  detail,  as  the  expansion  of  the  work 
beyond  the  bounds  of  Palestine  and  among  the 
Jews,  to  the  Gentiles.  But  Peter  had  made  an  im- 
perishable record  for  himself.  This  record 
abundantly  vindicated  Christ's  choice  of  him,  with 
all  his  inconsistences  and  defects  of  character,  to 


PETER  173 

be  a  disciple,  and  all  the  pains  he  took  to  train 
him  for  the  ministry  which  was  to  follow.  He 
was  the  first  great  leader  of  Christianity,  doing 
more  to  give  it  its  first  impulse  and  to  shape  its 
course,  than  any  other  one  of  the  original  apostolic 
company.  Only  once,  according  to  the  record, 
did  his  old  vacillating  disposition  again  show  it- 
self, when  he  endured  the  faithful  rebuke  of  Paul 
in  view  of  it  with  meekness,  and  immediately  re- 
sumed his  steadfast  course.      (Gal.  ii,  11  cf.) 

Aside  from  this  we  have  no  certain  knowledge 
in  regard  to  Peter.  As  the  apostle  to  the  cir- 
cumcision, he  would  find  the  sphere  of  his  labors 
among  his  own  countrymen — chiefly,  very  likely, 
among  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion.  From  refer- 
ences in  Paul's  epistles,  he  seems  to  have  visited 
Antioch,  possibly  Corinth  also,  and  from  his  own 
first  epistle,  he  apparently  labored  in  the  far  East 
at  Babylon,  where  the  Jews  were  numerous.  Nat- 
urally his  work  would  call  for  frequent  mission- 
ary journeys.  It  seems  probable  that  he  experi- 
enced a  martyr's  death  at  the  end,  as  his  Lord  had 
foreshadowed  that  he  might,  and  this  may  have 
been,  as  many  suppose,  at  Rome.  Beyond  these 
few  references.  Scripture  throws  no  light  upon  his 
course,  his  fortune,  his  labors,  his  sufferings,  his 
successes,  save  what  may  be  inferred  from  the 
two  epistles  which  bear  his  name.  Little  reliance 
can  probably  be  placed  upon  the  numerous  tradi- 
tions in  regard  to  him  which  have  come  down  to 
us. 


174j     the  new  testament  PERIOD 

Peter's  first  epistle  was  written  to  encourage 
the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion,  particularly  in  those 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor  where  persecution  pre- 
vailed against  the  Christians,  to  bear  up  against 
it  patiently  and  hopefully.  Soon  their  trials 
would  be  over.  They  are  exhorted,  meanwhile,  to 
stand  fast,  to  live  a  life  of  holiness  and  mutual 
love,  and  in  due  time  they  would  receive  the  in- 
heritance which  was  reserved  in  heaven  for  the 
faithful.  The  epistle  is  remarkable  for  the  depth 
and  beauty  of  its  Christian  teachings,  and  from 
the  very  beginning  it  has  always  held  a  secure 
place  in  the  sacred  canon.  The  second  epistle,  if 
indeed  it  is  from  Peter's  pen,  seems  to  have  been 
written  to  the  same  churches  as  the  first.  Its  ob- 
ject was  to  stir  up  the  minds  of  its  readers  to  re- 
member what  had  been  taught  them,  that  they 
might  be  saved  from  the  errors  which  were  now  be- 
coming prevalent,  and  might  grow  in  grace  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ. 
In  both  these  epistles  Peter  stands  before  us  in 
a  singularly  beautiful  humility.  They  show  him 
to  have  ripened  into  Christian  maturity,  and  that 
Christ,  whom  he  once  denied,  was  the  mighty  in- 
spiration of  his  life. 

Our  review  of  Peter's  life  and  work  impresses 
us  with  the  nobility  of  his  character  as  the  result 
of  the  training  which  he  received  from  Christ  and 
the  transforming  influence  of  the  Spirit.  From 
the  impulsive,  sometimes  weak  and  vacillating  dis- 


PETER  175 

ciple,  he  became  the  courageous  apostolic  leader, 
and  during  all  his  after  life  nobly  fulfilled  the 
duties  of  his  apostolic  office.  As  to  his  actual 
contribution  to  the  movement  which  Christ  inaug- 
urated, it  is  impossible  accurately  to  estimate  it, 
either  as  to  the  numbers  brought  into  Christian 
discipleship,  the  extent  of  territory  into  which  he 
introduced  the  gospel,  or  the  influence  he  exerted 
in  bringing  in  a  broader  conception  of  Christian- 
ity than  at  first  prevailed  among  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians. The  results  of  his  labors  from  a  numerical 
point  of  view  must  have  been  large,  especially  when 
we  consider  the  wide  extent  of  territory  over  which 
he  probably  traveled  in  his  missionary  journeys, 
and  in  which  he  preached^  One  with  such  powers 
as  he  possessed  would  not  be  likely  to  lack  for  a 
hearing  anywhere.  But  his  contribution  to  the 
new  movement  was  particularly  marked  in  what  he 
did  to  open  the  door,  and  help  keep  it  open  per- 
manently, to  the  Gentiles.  As  soon  as  he  saw 
the  light  he  was  quick  to  follow  it.  He  was  not 
one  to  reason  out  such  a  proposition  in  the  first 
place,  as  Paul  would  do,  but  he  was  willing  to  be 
led  into  the  truth,  whatever  it  was.  After  per- 
ceiving that  his  presentation  of  the  gospel  to 
Cornelius  and  his  family  was  attended  by  marks 
of  the  divine  approval,  he  no  longer  questioned 
that  this  was  the  Lord's  will  concerning  the 
Gentiles.  His  utterances  on  the  subject  at  the 
Jerusalem  Conference  were  especially  influential 
in  turning  the  tide  in  favor  of  the  broader  view. 


CHAPTER  III 

JOHN 

The  popular  impression  as  to  John  the  apostle 
— perhaps  owing  to  his  designation  as  the  "dis- 
ciple whom  Jesus  loved,"  and  because  he  himself 
in  his  epistles  and  Gospel  dwells  so  much  on  love 
— has  come  to  be  of  one  who  was  all  gentleness, 
mildness,  inclined  even  to  effeminacy.  It  is  of 
one  largely  destitute  of  such  strong  and  positive 
elements  of  character,  as  we  find,  for  instance,  in 
Peter  and  Paul.  But  this  is  to  do  serious  in- 
justice to  the  facts  in  the  case.  John's  natural 
traits  appear  to  have  been  just  the  reverse — traits 
which  might  need  to  be  modified  and  sanctified, 
but  by  no  means  eradicated.  It  was  very  likely 
his  discernment  of  strong,  manly  qualities,  with 
their  possibilities,  in  John's  nature,  which  so  com- 
mended him  to  Christ,  and  led  to  his  selection  for 
the  large  part  he  was  to  have  in  laying  the  foun- 
dations of  the  Christian  faith.  At  the  same  time, 
there  was  evidently  such  a  delicate  susceptibility 
to  impressions  on  John's  part  that  his  close  as- 
sociation with  the  Master  and  the  influence  of  the 
latter's  personal  training  upon  him  could  hardly 
fail  to  develop  the  gentler,  more  lovable  graces, 
which  seem  later  to  have  been  so  characteristic 
176 


JOHN  17T 

of  him.  More  than  this,  the  inworking  of  the 
Spirit  would  bring  all  to  maturity,  and  kindle 
in  his  soul  that  profound  love  for  his  Lord  by 
which  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  join  and  the  last 
to  leave  him,  and  that  zeal  in  his  service  which 
continued  undisturbed  throughout  his  long  career. 


John  was  a  native  of  Galilee.  He  was  probably 
of  the  town  of  Bethsaida  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake  or  sea  of  Galilee,  and  not  far  from  Caper- 
naum, which  was  the  headquarters  of  our  Lord 
during  his  Galilean  ministry.  The  names  of 
John's  parents  were  Zebedee  and  Salome.  His  fa- 
ther's business  was  that  of  fishing,  and  John  and 
his  brother  James  were  brought  up  to  the  same 
occupation.  That  Zebedee  was  a  man  of  some 
worldly  substance,  reasonably  well  to  do  at  least, 
and  of  respectable  position,  has  been  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  he  was  assisted  by  hired  servants  in 
the  management  of  his  boats  and  in  mending  his 
nets,  that  mention  is  made  of  his  ownership  of  a 
home,  and  that  John  was  acquainted  with  the 
family  of  Caiaphas  the  High  Priest.  The  mother 
was  an  ardent,  pious  woman,  and  from  the  refer- 
ences to  her  in  the  Gospel  narratives,  she  must 
have  been  possessed  of  more  than  ordinary  energy 
of  character.  She  was  one  of  the  women  who 
ministered  to  Jesus,  and  shared  in  the  expense  of 
spices  for  anointing  his  body  at  his  burial.  It 
has  been  thought  that  because  of  so  little  mention 


178    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

of  the  father,  and  that  Salome  is  designated  as  the 
"mother  of  Zebedee's  children,"  he  died  not  long 
after  the  sons  became  disciples  of  Christ. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  James  and  John  had 
often  been  associated  in  pastimes,  studies,  and 
occupation,  with  Andrew  and  Peter,  two  other 
young  men  of  Bethsaida,  whose  father  also  was  a 
fisherman,  and  whom  they  assisted.  Very  likely 
the  long  and  intimate  friendship  of  Peter  and 
John  began  in  those  early  days.  Though  they 
had  strongly  contrasted  characters  and  widely 
differing  temperaments,  each  may  have  supplied 
what  the  other  lacked.  Certainly  this  friendship 
must  have  had  no  small  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  both,  and  may  have  been  fruitful  in  many 
ways  for  their  mutual  good.  As  the  time  ad- 
vanced, their  common  interests  and  sympathies 
would  naturally  tend  to  make  this  friendship 
closer. 

As  to  John's  education,  we  can  hardly  presume 
that  it  was  anything  like  as  thorough  as  that  of 
Paul.  His  knowledge  of  letters,  properly  speak- 
ing, was  doubtless  limited.  He  was  probably 
trained  in  all  that  constituted  the  ordinary  edu- 
cation of  Jewish  boyhood  at  least.  No  doubt  he 
was  carefully  instructed  by  his  parents  in  the 
rudiments  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  in  the  leading 
events  of  the  nation's  remarkable  history.  Not 
to  have  done  this — to  have  allowed  their  children 
to  grow  up  without  being  instructed  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  religion — would  have  been  regarded  as 


JOHN  1T9 

entirely  unbecoming  in  Jewish  parents.  The  sons 
most  likely  shared  in  the  provision  made  for  gen- 
eral education  in  connection  with  the  synagogue 
schools,  and  schools  more  advanced  if,  as  is 
thought,  such  were  in  existence  at  that  time  in 
the  province.  Furthermore,  the  public  services 
of  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  were  of  them- 
selves educational  in  character.  It  is  hardly  to 
be  supposed  that  one  of  John's  susceptible  and 
responsive  nature  would  fail  to  be  impressed  by 
and  to  remember  what  he  heard  there  as  the  days 
and  the  years  passed. 

Other  influences  which  had  not  a  little  to  do 
with  shaping  John's  character  and  developing  his 
mental  powers  were  his  contact  with  travelers  pass- 
ing through  his  native  place  and  the  political  agi- 
tations of  the  time;  the  reactive  effect  upon  him 
of  his  own  business  in  its  varied  relations ;  the  per- 
sonal influence  of  his  mother,  with  her  warm  and 
energetic  disposition ;  above  all,  the  training  which 
he  received  directly  and  indirectly  from  the  Master 
himself.  By  all  these  means  he  became  fitted  at 
length  for  the  great  mission  to  which  he  was 
called,  and  which  occupied  his  time  and  energies 
throughout  his  long  career.  That  he  was  a  man 
of  a  high  order  of  ability  naturally,  seems  evident 
from  the  profound  spiritual  views  which  he  was 
able  to  take  and  to  which  he  gave  expression  later. 
His  writings  make  this  abundantly  clear. 

Whether  he  was  ever  married  or  not — as  it  is 
evident  that  Peter  was — no  light  is  given  in  the 


180    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

records.  If  he  had  been,  it  would  seem  as  if  some 
reference  would  have  been  made  to  it.  That  he 
had  a  home,  presided  over  by  his  mother  Salome 
no  doubt,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  Christ  com- 
mitted his  own  mother — as  he  hung  upon  the  cross 
— to  the  care  of  the  beloved  disciple,  who,  we  read, 
took  her  to  his  own  home.  The  opinion  that  John 
was  the  youngest  of  the  disciples  would  seem  to  be 
sustained  by  the  fact  that  he  lived  to  see  the 
close  of  the  first  century.  He  probably  survived 
all  the  others. 

Evidently  John  early  became  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  the  influence  of  such  a  teacher, 
both  in  his  message  and  in  his  own  character  and 
spirit,  must  have  had  a  marked  effect  upon  his 
developing  manhood.  No  doubt  he  and  other 
Galilean  youth  were  early  attracted  by  the  Bap- 
tist's preaching  in  the  wilderness,  and  put  them- 
selves under  his  instruction.  Andrew,  Peter's 
brother,  is  distinctly  mentioned  as  having  been 
one  of  these,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt,  from 
the  form  of  the  reference  in  the  first  chapter  of 
John's  Gospel,  that  John  was  another.  Most 
likely  Peter  was  a  third.  Along  with  the  others 
who  heard  him,  they  must  have  been  profoundly 
moved  by  the  burning  words  of  this  preacher  of 
righteousness.  Without  realizing  it,  John  was  re- 
ceiving the  best  possible  preparation  for  the 
higher  discipleship  under  Christ  which  was  to  come 
later,  to  which,  indeed,  the  Baptist  himself  intro- 
duced   him.     The    day    of    that    introduction    to 


JOHN  181 

Christ  was  a  memorable  one  in  John's  life.  When 
in  his  old  age  at  Ephesus  he  writes  his  Gospel,  it 
rises  distinctly  to  view,  and  he  makes  detailed 
reference  to  it. 

One  of  the  constant  aims  of  Christ,  never  lost 
sight  of  even  in  his  busiest  hours,  was  that  of 
preparing  his  disciples  for  the  functions  of  the 
apostolic  office.  Accordingly,  as  John  became 
one  of  Christ's  disciples,  his  training  for  his  fu- 
ture work  at  once  began.  Not  only  was  he  to  be 
instructed  in  the  things  of  the  kingdom,  he  was 
to  receive  such  discipline  in  temper  as  would  en- 
able him,  both  by  precept  and  example,  fittingly  to 
exemplify  the  truth  which  he  was  to  proclaim 
and  the  spirit  which  Christ  inculcated.  As  in  the 
case  of  Peter,  this  training  was  to  be  both  general 
and  special — that  which  was  received  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  disciples,  and  that  which  was 
directly  personal,  adapted  to  his  own  peculiar 
temperament  and  needs. 

As  to  the  general  training  of  John,  his  suscep- 
tible and  responsive  nature  would  naturally  lead 
him  to  appreciate  and  to  profit  by  Christ's  in- 
struction and  discipline,  the  influence  of  his  ex- 
ample and  spirit,  more  than  most  of  the  others. 
The  same  opportunities  would  mean  more  to  him 
than  to  the  rest.  It  was  this  quality  or  disposi- 
tion on  John's  part,  very  likely,  which  led  to  his 
being  selected  as  one  of  the  favored  three  who 
were  more  than  once  permitted  to  come  into  closest 


182    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

possible  contact  with  the  Master.  These  three, 
Peter,  James,  and  John,  formed  a  kind  of  inner 
circle  of  the  disciples — not  in  the  sense  of  favorit- 
ism on  Christ's  part,  but  as  a  natural  outcome  of 
their  possessing,  in  larger  degree  than  the  others, 
the  power  of  apprehending  spiritual  things.  Of 
the  three,  John  appears  to  have  stood  in  even  more 
intimate  relation  to  him  than  the  rest,  so  much  so 
that  he  is  spoken  of  as  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved.  We  can  imagine  what  such  relationship 
would  mean  to  one  in  preparation  for  the  apos- 
tolic office. 

In  common  with  the  other  disciples,  John  would 
listen  to  the  instruction  of  Christ  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  kingdom  which  he  was  to  inaugurate  and 
which  they  were  to  carry  forward  after  him.  He 
heard  the  public  discourses  of  the  Master,  and 
listened  to  him  in  private  as  frequently  his  public 
utterances  were  afterward  explained  or  amplified 
for  their  benefit.  He  saw  the  mighty  works 
which  Jesus  performed,  which  constituted  one  of 
his  credentials  to  the  Messianic  office,  and  which 
could  not  but  lead  to  a  steadily  deepening  faith 
on  the  part  of  those  who  witnessed  them.  How 
effectively  John  learned  this  lesson  of  faith,  one 
of  the  most  fundamental  and  important  lessons  in 
his  entire  training,  would  seem  to  be  made  plain 
in  his  Gospel,  whose  main  aim  is  to  convince 
others  of  Christ's  divine  character.  In  doing 
this,  he  selected  such  scenes  and  miracles  and  dis- 
courses from  Christ's  life  as  had  made  the  most 


JOHN  183 

profound  impression  upon  his  own  mind,  and  the 
rehearsal  of  which  he  believed  would  produce  the 
same  effect  on  the  minds  of  others. 

But  as  in  the  case  of  Peter,  a  large  part  of 
John's  training  was  personal  and  private.  No 
risks  must  be  run  in  such  a  work  as  that  which 
was  to  be  committed  to  the  disciples,  and  he  who 
knew  the  secret  heart  and  weakness  of  each  of 
them,  as  well  as  their  points  of  strength,  would 
leave  nothing  undone  to  qualify  them  for  their 
great  undertaking.  So  like  the  true  friend  and 
thorough  teacher  that  he  was,  Christ  frankly 
pointed  out  the  shortcomings  and  special  needs  of 
each  as  occasion  arose,  as  well  as  sought  to  de- 
velop the  corresponding  positive  virtues.  Some- 
times the  experience  was  severe  for  them — it  was 
so  in  Peter's  case — but  it  was  no  more  severe  than 
the  nature  of  the  defects  or  the  desperateness  of 
the  fault  required. 

We  know  not  all  the  weak  points  in  John's  char- 
acter, but  some  of  his  failings  were  evidently  of 
the  gravest  kind.  With  all  that  was  winsome  in 
his  nature — and  there  was  much — he  was  thor- 
oughly human.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  he 
was  of  a  quick,  fiery  temperament,  disposed  to  be 
revengeful,  and  full  of  unsanctified,  selfish  ambi- 
tion. The  name  given  to  him  and  his  brother 
James  by  Christ — Boanerges,  sons  of  thunder — 
would  seem  to  imply  a  vehemence,  impetuosity, 
severity,    even    violence    of    natural    disposition. 


184.    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

These  tendencies  broke  out  once  and  again.  On 
one  occasion,  after  the  people  of  a  certain 
Samaritan  village  had  refused  hospitality  to  Jesus 
and  his  disciples  at  the  close  of  a  wearisome  day 
of  travel — a  refusal  evidently  growing  out  of  the 
long-standing  prejudice  between  Jews  and 
Samaritans — John  and  his  brother  James  came  to 
their  Master  and  proposed  that  the  offending  vil- 
lagers be  destroyed  by  fire  called  down  from 
heaven.  It  was  a  strange,  brutal  request  to  come 
from  men  who  had  long  been  disciples  of  the  gen- 
tle and  loving  Jesus,  but  it  shows  clearly  that  as 
yet  they  were  in  a  low  stage  of  development ;  that 
their  conception  of  the  Christian  life  and  the 
Christian  temper  was  still  very  crude;  and  that 
they  were  animated  by  a  spirit  which  was  entirely 
foreign  to  that  inculcated  by  the  great  Teacher. 
That  which  seemed  to  them  to  be  but  righteous 
resentment,  in  reality  contained  the  very  essence 
of  all  sin — murder.  Christ  pointed  out  their  sin 
and  rebuked  them  for  it.  It  was  a  personal  les- 
son in  regard  to  the  true  spirit  of  the  Christian 
life  which  would  never  be  forgotten.  All  this 
goes  to  show  how  possible  it  is  to  think  one  is  ren- 
dering service  to  God,  when  in  reality  he  may  be 
doing  just  the  reverse — just  as  in  the  case  of 
Saul  the  persecutor,  before  he  became  Paul  the 
Christian,  as  he  himself  confesses.  It  makes  all 
the  difference  in  the  world  as  to  the  spirit  one 
breathes,  or  by  which  he  is  animated.  One  may 
be  in  the  right  on  some  question,  so  far  as  the 


JOHN  185 

abstract  truth  is  concerned,  and  yet  be  all  wrong 
in  the  spirit  with  which  he  maintains  his  position. 
Some  over-zealous  reformers  seem  to  be  of  this 
class.  Thus  one's  maintenance  of  a  right  attitude 
is  often  neutralized  by  a  wrong  spirit  manifested 
in  connection  with  it.  No  one  seems  to  have 
needed  the  lesson  which  Christ  sought  to  inculcate 
on  this  occasion,  more  than  John.  Later,  after 
the  Holy  Spirit  had  wrought  more  fully  within 
him,  the  opposite  qualities  of  gentleness,  meekness, 
patience,  tolerance,  began  to  be  manifest  in  his 
character.  The  zeal  of  the  sons  of  thunder  did 
not  disappear,  but  it  became  tempered,  softened, 
sweetened. 

On  another  occasion  John  reported  to  his  Mas- 
ter the  incident  of  the  interdicted  exorcist.  The 
disciples  had  found  a  man,  unknown  to  them,  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  casting  out  devils  in  Jesus' 
name.  On  the  ground  that  he  did  not  identify 
himself  with  them,  the  twelve,  they  forbade  him  to 
continue.  It  was  not  that  he  was  not  a  good  man 
or  a  sincere  follower  of  Christ,  which  he  doubtless 
was,  but  simply  because  he  did  not  identify  him- 
self with  them.  Just  as  if  to-day  we  should  re- 
fuse to  recognize  others  as  Christian  believers, 
along  with  ourselves,  or  the  work  of  their  hands 
for  Christ,  because  they  are  not  of  our  particular 
set,  or  church,  or  denomination.  The  spirit  of 
the  disciples,  and  of  John  with  the  rest,  was  un- 
charitable, narrow,  out  of  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Master.     No  wonder  Christ  rebuked 


186    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

them  for  it.  "There  is  no  man,"  he  said,  "that 
shall  do  a  miracle  in  my  name,  that  can  lightly 
speak  evil  of  me."  That  one  engaged  in  a  work 
like  that  of  this  exorcist  might  be  actuated  by  un- 
worthy motives,  might  be  possible,  but  until  clear, 
strong  reasons  for  believing  otherwise  appeared, 
Jesus  would  have  the  disciples  charitably  regard 
the  outward  action  as  the  index  of  sincere  faith 
and  love.  John  would  hardly  need  a  second  les- 
son on  the  subject,  and  the  large,  generous  spirit 
which  he  afterward  exemplified,  showed  how  well 
he  profited  by  the  lesson  received  at  this  time. 

In  the  incident  of  the  two  brothers,  James  and 
John,  seeking  through  the  intervention  of  their 
mother,  the  highest  positions  of  honor  in  the  new 
kingdom,  we  have  an  illustration  of  the  worldly 
and  selfish  ambition  by  which  they  were  animated, 
even  up  to  but  a  few  days  preceding  the  cruci- 
fixion. Regardless  of  the  equal  claims  of  the 
other  disciples,  and  thinking  only  of  their  own 
selfish  interests,  they  wanted  to  make  sure  of  the 
places  of  highest  honor  for  themselves.  No  won- 
der the  rest  of  the  disciples,  when  they  learned  of 
it,  were  indignant.  It  seems  a  marvel  that  even 
Jesus  himself  could  have  borne  patiently  with  such 
a  spirit.  His  answer  to  this  presumptuous  re- 
quest, though  singularly  mild,  apparently,  was  in 
reality  a  rebuke  of  the  severest  kind.  He  de- 
clared to  the  brothers  that  they  little  realized  what 
they  were  asking.  True  greatness  in  his  king- 
dom was  by  unselfish,  ministering  service.     The 


JOHN  187 

way  to  the  throne  was  by  the  cross.  The  real 
princes  of  the  kingdom  would  be  those  who  had 
passed  through  great  tribulation,  and  had  drunk 
most  deeply  of  the  cup  of  sorrow.  It  was  not 
for  him,  Christ,  to  assign  positions  of  honor. 
Each  man  would  get  the  place  for  which  his  ex- 
perience fitted  him,  and  no  other.  Only  as  the 
disciples  were  willing  to  pay  the  price,  would  their 
ambitions  be  realized. 

These  are  a  few  instances  of  Christ's  personal 
efforts  to  train  the  impetuous,  intolerant,  ambi- 
tious disciple,  that  he  might  become  the  spiritual 
apostle.  No  doubt  there  were  many  other  occa- 
sions, not  recorded,  when  other  equally  needed  re- 
bukes Were  administered  and  other  important  les- 
sons were  impressed,  but  these  will  sufficiently 
indicate  the  course  which  Jesus  pursued  in  order 
that  each  of  the  disciples  might  receive  the  special 
training  which  he  needed.  It  was  in  this  way  that 
the  blemishes  of  John's  character  were  removed, 
its  harsher  elements  subdued,  and  the  more  win- 
some, gentle,  and  loving  qualities  of  it  largely  de- 
veloped— those  qualities  which  gave  reason  for 
his  being  so  loved  by  the  Master,  and  by  which  he 
came  to  be  designated  the  apostle  of  love. 

But  we  are  by  no  means  to  suppose  that  Christ's 
personal  training  of  John  was  all  of  a  negative 
sort,  any  more  than  in  the  case  of  Peter.  He 
sought  to  develop  within  him  the  positive  virtues 
and  a  positive  faith,  as  well  as  to  subdue  or  to 
overcome   such  qualities   as   were   abnormal.     To 


188    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

this  end,  such  incidents  as  that  of  raising  the 
daughter  of  Jairus,  the  transfiguration,  and  oth- 
ers, at  which  John  was  present  along  with  Peter 
and  James,  would  be  particularly  helpful.  The 
full  significance  of  some  of  these  lessons  might 
not  be  altogether  plain  at  the  time,  but  it  would 
be  made  so  later,  as  the  Spirit  should  bring  all 
things  to  John's  remembrance. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  general  and  personal 
training  of  John,  he  also  received  from  the  Mas- 
ter the  inestimable  benefit  of  what  may  be  termed 
the  unconscious  influence  upon  himself  of  Christ's 
example  and  spirit.  Lessons  from  this  source, 
from  the  Master's  own  life — of  an  absolute  trust, 
of  patience,  forbearance,  prayer,  forgiveness, 
sympathy,  and  of  entire  absorption  in  the  work 
of  ministering  service  to  others — would  make  an 
indelible  impression  upon  John's  nature,  and 
could  not  fail  to  prove  a  large  factor  in  his  de- 
velopment. Nor  would  this  be  less  true,  even  if, 
as  is  likely,  he  may  have  been  largely  unconscious, 
at  the  time,  of  the  effect  which  was  being  pro- 
duced upon  himself.  He  would  imbibe  his  Mas- 
ter's spirit,  emulate  his  example,  form  ideals  of 
character,  and  set  up  standards  of  conduct,  un- 
der that  influence,  without  being  distinctly  aware 
of  it  at  the  moment.  He  had  opportunity  to  ob- 
serve Jesus'  demeanor  and  spirit  under  all  con- 
ditions. He  saw  that  when  he  was  reviled,  he 
reviled   not   again ;   that   he   spent   much   time   in 


JOHN  189 

communion  with  his  Father;  that  in  trying  exig- 
encies especially,  or  when  about  to  take  some  im- 
portant step — as,  e.  g.,  the  formal  appointment 
of  the  twelve  to  be  his  disciples — he  spent  entire 
nights  in  prayer;  that  in  the  final  ordeals  of  his 
earthly  life,  those  last  days  before  his  death,  he 
bore  himself  in  a  way  to  command  the  admiration 
of  men  in  all  time;  that  so  self- forgetting  was 
he,  that  even  while  hanging  on  the  cross,  he  em- 
braced an  opportunity  to  preach  the  gospel  to  a 
penitent  criminal  at  his  side;  and  that  in  his  last 
words  he  prayed  for  his  enemies  who  were  put- 
ting him  to  death.  All  these  scenes  and  experi- 
ences through  which  John  passed,  together  with 
those  pertaining  to  the  resurrection,  must  have 
had  a  large  place  in  the  development  of  his  char- 
acter and  faith,  and  in  preparing  him  for  the 
momentous  responsibilities  which  were  soon  to 
devolve  upon  him,  along  with  Peter  and  the  rest 
of  the  disciples. 

Christ's  direct  training — ^both  general  and  spe- 
cial— of  the  disciples,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
essentially  finished  on  that  last  evening  they  spent 
together,  when  he  gave  the  whole  company  a 
never-to-be-forgotten  lesson  in  humility  by  wash- 
ing their  feet,  and  in  the  final  instructions  of  that 
uninterrupted  interview.  Henceforth  Providence 
would  take  up  and  carry  on  the  process,  and 
brief  though  the  time  was  before  Christ's  final 
departure,  its  occurrences  were  epoch-making. 
Such  scenes  as  the  disciples  were  now  to  witness 


190    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

would  impress  lessons  of  a  different  kind  from  any 
they  had  hitherto  received,  yet  they  were  none  the 
less  needed  to  complete  their  preparation.  That 
the  desired  results  were  accomplished,  in  so  far  at 
least  as  John  was  concerned,  there  can  be  little 
doubt.  So  ineffaceably  were  these  experiences 
impressed  upon  his  mind,  that  he  wrote  of  them 
years  afterward  in  the  full  and  vivid  way  which 
he  would  naturally  have  written  had  they  been 
of  but  recent  occurrence.  The  things  which 
Christ  said,  the  prayer  which  he  offered,  the 
scenes  connected  with  the  arrest  and  the  trial, 
the  vacillation  of  Pilate,  the  scene  at  the  cruci- 
fixion, the  bearing  of  the  suffering  One,  some  of 
his  words  from  the  cross,  his  death — all  are 
graphically  portrayed  in  the  Gospel  which  bears 
John's  name.  The  educating  influence  of  all 
these  scenes  upon  such  an  one  as  he  is  not  to  be 
computed.  When  the  spiritual  enduement  of 
Pentecost  came  upon  him  and  the  rest,  their 
preparation  for  their  life  work  was  complete. 
Then  they  were  ready  to  go  forth  and  enter  upon 
the  great  work  which  had  been  committed  to  them, 
and  to  extend  the  kingdom  to  the  very  ends  of 
the  earth.  The  love  of  John,  especially,  burned 
with  a  fresh  intensity. 

II 

The  spiritual  enduement  at  Pentecost  was  not 
calculated  to  mold  the  disciples  into  men  of  the 
same  pattern.     Its  effect  would  rather  be  to  de- 


JOHN  191 

velop  and  to  emphasize  their  individuality.  Their 
native  differences  of  temperament  would  be 
brought  out  more  distinctly  than  ever.  And  this 
was  no  doubt  intended.  While  the  disciples  were 
alike  illumined  mentally,  and  energized,  it  was  in 
each  case  along  the  line  of  his  own  peculiarities 
and  aptitudes.  If  one  was  by  nature  a  leader  of 
men,  as  in  the  case  of  Peter,  his  qualities  of  lead- 
ership would  be  developed  and  rendered  more  ef- 
fective. If  one  was  of  a  contemplative  and 
thoughtful  cast  of  mind,  as  was  John,  qualities 
of  this  character  would  be  emphasized.  And  so 
of  other  characteristic  traits  and  tendencies,  while 
other  elements  still,  perhaps  unrecognized  before 
or  never  called  out,  would  be  brought  to  light. 
The  value  of  all  this  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the 
work  of  the  kingdom  would  be  of  so  varied  a 
character  as  that  all  the  faculties  and  powers  and 
special  gifts  of  the  disciples  could  be  utilized,  and 
would  be  needed. 

But  while  some  of  these  qualities  were  such  as 
to  give  to  one  a  special  prominence  in  the  work — 
qualities  which  would  be  more  quickly  recognized 
by  men — it  by  no  means  follows  that  they  were  in 
reality  the  most  important,  or  that  their  pos- 
sessor thereby  accomplished  a  more  important  or 
a  larger  service  than  others.  It  is  just  here  that 
we  meet  with  embarrassment  in  any  effort  to  set 
forth  and  to  estimate  the  work  of  different  men 
who  are  associated  in  a  great  enterprise.  Some 
seem  to  be  entirely  overshadowed  by  others  whose 


192    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

work  is  better  adapted  to  arrest  public  attention, 
although  their  own  work  may  be  just  as  impor- 
tant as  that  of  these  others,  and  even  more  so. 
So  in  the  story  of  the  public  work  of  Peter  and 
John,  so  in  the  case  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  so 
of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  John  and  Barna- 
bas and  Melanchthon  and  their  work  are  not  al- 
ways appreciated  at  their  full  value,  for  the  rea- 
son that  they  were  overshadowed  by  their  associ- 
ates. 

After  Pentecost,  Peter's  qualities  of  leader- 
ship brought  him  at  once  to  the  front,  and  this 
position  he  maintained  for  a  number  of  years. 
It  was  he  who  preached  that  wonderful  first 
Christian  sermon  at  Pentecost  whereby  three 
thousand  were  led  to  believe.  Naturally  from 
being  so  conspicuous  at  this  time  and  in  activi- 
ties succeeding,  he  is  more  prominent  in  the  rec- 
ords. He  was  probably  considerably  older  than 
John,  and  would  naturally  take  the  lead.  But 
even  if  John  is  less  conspicuous  in  the  narrative 
as  given  in  the  book  of  Acts,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  two  men  were  so  closely  associated 
that  the  acts  and  words  of  the  one,  might  not 
improperly  be  regarded  as  the  acts  and  words  of 
the  other.  Just  how  large  and  important  John's 
part  of  the  work  actually  was ;  how  much  his 
sympathy  and  counsels  influenced  Peter;  how 
much  of  a  restraining  influence  he  exerted  on 
Peter's  impulsiveness;  just  how  much  John's 
strong  faith  and  his  great  love  served  as  an  in- 


JOHN  193 

spiration  to  his  companion,  cannot  be  told. 
Later  in  life,  when  John  seems  to  have  been  alone 
— very  likely  from  having  survived  both  Peter 
and  Paul — he  himself  became  the  most  influential 
of  all  the  Christians  then  living,  having  charge 
of  the  work  centering  at  Ephesus,  the  third  great 
center,  as  Jerusalem  had  been  the  first,  and  An- 
tioch  the  second.  At  any  rate,  we  find  Peter  and 
John  standing  side  by  side  during  that  early 
Jerusalem  work,  with  its  startling  incidents  and 
events.  They  were  together  when  the  lame  man 
was  healed — an  incident  which  made  so  profound 
an  impression  upon  the  people,  and  which  de- 
veloped the  first  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities.  Together  they  faced  the  Sanhedrin 
after  being  arrested,  and  together  they  declared, 
when  forbidden  to  continue  to  speak  in  Christ's 
name,  that  they  must  obey  God  rather  than  men. 
Together  they  were  imprisoned,  together  they 
bore  witness  to  their  Master  by  their  unflinching 
loyalty,  their  heroic  devotion,  and  their  scathing 
words  against  the  Jewish  leaders ;  and  together, 
sent  by  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem,  they  went  at 
length  into  Samaria,  to  carry  forward  and  com- 
plete the  work  which  had  been  begun  there  by  the 
evangelist  Philip.  A  great  movement  had  devel- 
oped as  a  result  of  Philip's  labors.  Peter  and 
John  prayed  for  the  people,  we  read,  laid  their 
hands  on  them  that  they  might  receive  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  baptized  a  large  number  in  the  name 
of   Christ.     Here   they   were   thrown   in   contact 


194.    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

with  Simon  the  sorcerer,  whose  name  figures  prom- 
inently in  primitive  ecclesiastical  history,  who 
sought  to  purchase  the  Holy  Spirit  with  money. 
The  two  apostles  preached  in  various  towns  and 
villages  of  Samaria.  Nor  is  it  impossible  that 
they  may  have  preached  the  gospel  of  love  in  the 
very  villages  upon  which  John  and  his  brother 
once  sought  permission  from  Christ  to  call  down 
fire  from  heaven.  The  marvelous  boldness  which 
they  together  manifested,  was  not  the  boldness 
of  the  main  spokesman  simply — it  was  the  bold- 
ness of  John  just  as  truly  as  of  Peter.  This, 
indeed,  is  only  what  we  might  expect  from  one 
who  was  the  bravest  of  all  the  disciples  after  the 
arrest  of  the  Master.  Then,  more  than  all  the 
others,  John  stood  loyally  by  him.  It  is  hardly 
to  be  supposed  that  he  would  now  fall  behind 
Peter  or  any  others  in  the  boldness  with  which  he 
met  the  difficulties  and  the  perils  of  the  situation 
from  the  opposition  of  the  Jewish  authorities. 
In  Acts  IV,  13 — "Now  when  they  beheld  the  bold- 
ness of  Peter  and  John" — it  is  made  plain  that 
it  was  not  alone  Peter's  boldness  of  speech  of 
which  the  council  took  note — it  was  the  boldness 
of  John  as  well. 

John  was  present  at  the  famous  Jerusalem  Con- 
ference (Acts  XV )  when  the  burning  question  of 
the  time  in  regard  to  the  admission  of  Gentiles 
to  participation  in  the  full  privileges  of  the  gos- 
pel, and  on  the  same  terms  as  the  Jews,  was  settled. 
We  do  not  read  that  he  was  conspicuous  in  the 


JOHN  195 

discussions  of  that  meeting — his  name,  in  fact, 
does  not  appear  in  Luke's  record  of  it.  Paul, 
however,  makes  honorable  mention  of  him  in  this 
connection  in  one  of  his  epistles  (Gal.  ii,  9).  It 
was  his  (Paul's)  testimony  that  John  and  Peter 
and  James  seemed  to  be  pillars,  and  that  they 
gave  to  him  and  Barnabas  the  right  hand  of 
fellowship.  Paul  and  John  may  have  met  before, 
but  this  is  the  only  meeting  recorded.  We  may 
well  believe  that  John's  position  at  this  Conference 
was  no  less  advanced  that  that  of  Peter  and  the 
others  who  sustained  Paul  in  his  championship  of 
the  cause  of  the  Gentile  believers.  It  would  be 
unlike  John — certainly  as  he  appears  in  his  later 
life — ^not  to  have  taken  broad  views  on  such  a 
question,  or  to  have  failed  to  give  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas the  right  hand  of  fellowship  in  their  noble 
work.  John  was  destined  to  become  the  successor 
of  the  great  apostle  later,  in  the  care  of  some 
of  the  very  churches  which  the  latter  had  planted 
among  the  Gentiles,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 
After  this,  except  in  Revelation,  the  name  of  John 
disappears  from  the  New  Testament. 

Ill 

From  this  time  forward  we  must  make  our  way 
as  best  we  can  in  regard  to  John  without  the 
Scripture  to  guide  us,  save  as  those  parts  of 
which  he  was  the  author  clearly  connect  them- 
selves with  his  history,  and  take  their  place  as  au- 
thentic records  of  his  life.     As  John  lived  longer 


196    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

than  the  rest  of  the  apostles  and  was  personally 
known  to  a  generation  of  Christians  who  were  on 
the  stage  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century, 
the  traditions  respecting  him  have  of  course  a 
much  higher  value  than  those  related  of  any  other 
of  the  twelve,  and  the  traditions  themselves  have 
a  greater  appearance  of  historical  truth.  Some 
very  important  statements  in  regard  to  John's 
later  life  may  be  derived  from  the  genuine  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  fathers. 

No  very  positive  information  as  to  where  John 
spent  the  time  between  the  Jerusalem  Conference 
and  his  residence  in  Asia  Minor,  is  available.  It 
seems  somewhat  remarkable  that  we  find  no  fur- 
ther mention  of  him  in  the  book  of  Acts.  But  the 
same  is  true  of  Peter.  Whether  John  spent  this 
whole  period  in  discharging  his  apostolic  office  at 
Jerusalem,  or  in  Palestine,  becomes  a  question  of 
deep  interest.  As  there  is  no  trace  of  his  labors 
in  any  other  direction,  some  have  conjectured  that 
inasmuch  as  he  had  been  so  intimately  related  to 
Peter  in  Judea  and  Samaria,  he  may  have  ac- 
companied Peter  in  his  missionary  journeyings  to 
the  eastward  and  elsewhere.  But  wherever  spent, 
the  years  of  this  portion  of  John's  unwritten  his- 
tory were  doubtless  years  of  zealous  activity  for 
the  Master  whom  he  so  devotedly  loved.  If  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  it  was  not  to  tarry  there 
long.  The  days  of  its  tribulation  were  at  hand, 
and  he  would  be  quick  to  discern  the  signs  of  the 
coming  woe  which  Christ  had  predicted,  and  no 


JOHN  197 

doubt  under  the  special  direction  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  he  took  his  departure  from  it.  It  may  be 
that  at  this  time  he  embarked  for  Asia — not  the 
continent,  not  Asia  Minor  merely,  but  a  province 
of  that  name  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
Ephesus  was  its  capital,  and  to  this  city  he  came. 
Here  a  Christian  community  existed  under  the 
very  shadow  of  the  goddess  Diana — "Diana  of  the 
Ephesians."  Apollos,  Aquila,  Priscilla,  Paul, 
had  all  been  there  before  him.  The  latter  ap- 
pears to  have  labored  here  for  three  years.  Here, 
in  this  great  center  of  trade  of  both  Europe  and 
the  Levant,  and  of  false  worship,  John,  with  his 
characteristic  ardor,  entered  upon  his  work. 

It  was  a  time  of  persecutions,  and  it  is  believed 
by  many  that  it  was  in  connection  with  the  great 
persecution  of  Nero — which,  beginning  in  A.  D. 
64  and  continuing  until  that  monster's  death  in 
'68,  swept  to  the  remotest  provinces — that  John 
was  forced  into  exile  on  the  isle  of  Patmos,  and 
that  there  he  had  the  visions  which  formed  the 
basis  of  the  Apocalypse.  The  island  of  Patmos 
was  an  obscure  one,  a  few  miles  south  of  Ephesus, 
and  about  fifteen  miles  in  circumference.  The 
fact  that  there  are  references  in  the  Apocalypse 
which  seem  to  imply  that  Jerusalem  and  the 
Temple  were  still  standing,  adds  to  the  strength 
of  this  position  in  regard  to  the  date.  There  are 
others,  however,  who  place  the  date  of  the  book 
at  about  A.  D.  '95,  or  during  the  latter  part  of 
the   reign   of  Domitian.     This,   indeed,  has   been 


198     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

the  tradition,  and  there  are  many  considerations 
which  support  it.  If,  as  some  assert,  neither 
Revelation,  nor  the  Gospel  which  bears  John's 
name,  could  have  been  written  by  the  apostle,  they 
must  certainly  have  been  written  by  men  who  had 
been  most  closely  related  to  him,  had  imbibed  his 
spirit,  and  were  thoroughly  familiar  with  his 
thought. 

But  while  much  can  be  said  on  either  side  of 
these  questions,  the  value  and  significance  of  both 
these  books  are  not  dependent  upon  the  determi- 
nation of  their  date,  or  even  of  their  authorship. 
They  have  an  imperishable  worth  on  other 
grounds.  Revelation  is  remarkable  as  a  literary 
work  and  for  its  figurative  character.  While 
some  things  in  it  seem  to  have  reference  to 
events  which  then  were  "shortly  to  come  to  pass," 
these  references  are  by  no  means  so  clear  as  to 
warrant  the  minute  and  literal  and  material  in- 
terpretations which  are  sometimes  given  them. 
The  evident  design  of  the  book  was  to  encourage 
the  persecuted  and  suffering  Christians  of  that 
time  to  hold  fast  their  confidence.  The  present 
ordeals  would  soon  pass.  Christ  would  ultimately 
triumph  in  the  world,  and  a  glimpse  is  afforded 
into  the  glories  of  the  heavenly  realm  which  the 
faithful  were  to  inherit. 

John  is  at  this  time  the  only,  or  about  the 
only  survivor  of  the  apostolic  company,  certainly 
so  if  the  date  of  the  book  is  near  the  end  of  the 
first    century.     James,   Peter,    and   Paul    are   no 


JOHN  '  199 

more.  If  Peter  survived,  or  any  others,  they  must 
have  been  in  extreme  old  age,  or  in  some  remote 
quarter  of  the  globe.  If  hitherto  John  has  been 
less  prominent  than  these  others,  now  he  may  be 
regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  Christian  movement, 
and  his  work,  direct  and  indirect,  was  a  fitting 
climax  of  the  apostolic  period.  As  Dr.  SchafF 
says:  "If  Peter  was  appointed  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  the  apostolic  church,  and  Paul  to  build 
the  main  structure  thereon,  John,  the  apostle  of 
Completion,  was  to  erect  the  dome  whose  top 
should  lose  itself  in  the  glory  of  the  new 
heaven." 

At  the  time  of  John's  stay  in  Ephesus,  great 
heresies  were  beginning  to  develop  both  there  and 
in  other  cities  of  prominence  in  that  region.  The 
old  struggle  over  the  question  of  the  union  of 
Jewish  and  Gentile  converts  in  one  church — al- 
though it  had  broken  out  here  and  there  even  af- 
ter it  had  apparently  been  settled  at  the  Jeru- 
salem Conference — was  now  a  thing  of  the  past. 
The  ritualistic  differences  between  the  churches 
of  the  circumcision  and  the  uncircumcision  were 
recognized  and  understood  on  both  sides,  and  so 
unity  was  preserved.  But  now  fresh  controver- 
sies sprang  up  which  had  not  appeared  in  earlier 
days,  and  it  was  reserved  for  John  to  meet  them, 
to  reconcile  oppositions,  and  restore  peace  among 
conflicting  elements.  This  was  probably  his 
final  service  for  the  cause  he  loved,  and  for  the 


200    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Master  whom  he  adored.  There  were  heathen  and 
Jewish  superstitions  to  supplant,  subtle  and  mis- 
leading speculations  to  be  set  aside,  old  mytholo- 
gies to  uproot,  and  eastern  sorceries  to  over- 
throw. These  speculations  and  theories  became 
mingled  more  or  less  with  Christian  doctrines,  and 
hence  there  arose  what  may  be  called  the  Gnostic 
heresies,  an  expression,  however,  which  covers  the 
widest  and  sometimes  most  differing  ideas.  Al- 
though there  seem  to  be  references  to  these  the- 
ories and  speculations  in  such  epistles  as  James, 
Hebrews,  and  First  Peter,  whose  writers  seek  to 
meet  them  in  ways  direct  and  indirect,  it  is  in  the 
writings  attributed  to  John,  who  was  perhaps  bet- 
ter prepared  than  the  rest  by  his  training  and  his 
contemplative  habits  to  take  them  in  hand,  that 
they  are  refuted  in  a  most  masterly  and  unanswer- 
able way.  This  is  done,  not  by  attacking  them 
directly,  but  rather  by  setting  forth  the  positive 
doctrines  on  these  subjects,  especially  in  regard 
to  Christ,  his  divine  character  and  eternal  son- 
ship,  which  were  particularly  called  in  question. 
This  gives  special  significance  to  the  literature 
which  bears  John's  name,  and  of  which  it  is  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity  that  he  was 
the  author. 

And  yet  there  is  very  little  in  these  writings, 
especially  in  John's  Gospel,  to  imply  that  a  great 
controversy  was  raging.  Still,  everything  whicK 
enters  into  them,  particularly  into  the  Gospel, 
bears  upon  the  one  end  of  setting  forth  the  posi- 


JOHN  201 

tive  truth  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  faith  of 
Christian  people.  The  incidents,  the  miracles, 
the  discourses,  which  are  comprised  in  it,  were 
selected  out  of  material  at  hand,  with  this  in  view. 
Thus  the  double  purpose  was  served,  of  refuting 
dangerous  error  though  without  referring  to  it 
by  name,  and  of  establishing  or  demonstrating 
for  all  time  the  truth  pertaining  to  Christ  and 
his  divine  character.  The  book  is  written  with 
extreme  simplicity,  yet  it  is  the  simplicity  of 
greatness  and  of  perfect  familiarity  with  the 
theme.  It  abounds  in  "gems  of  thought  which 
lie  scattered  about  with  profuse  carelessness." 
The  personality  of  the  author  pervades  the  whole 
narrative.  One  writer  says:  "In  the  whole 
range  of  literature  there  is  no  composition  which 
is  a  more  perfect  work  of  art,  or  which  more 
rigidly  excludes  whatever  does  not  subserve  its 
main  end." 

The  three  epistles  which  bear  John's  name  are 
anonymous,  yet  it  has  been  the  prevailing  belief 
from  the  older  times  that  they  are  apostolic  writ- 
ings, and  a  part  of  the  legacy  of  the  beloved  dis- 
ciple to  the  church.  An  underlying  unity  of 
thought  binds  all  parts  together.  The  first 
epistle,  at  any  rate,  has  the  same  characteristic 
phraseology  as  is  manifest  in  John's  Gospel.  Its 
aim  is  tersely  summarized  by  the  writer  as  in- 
tended to  confirm  his  readers  in  faith  and  com- 
munion with  God.  The  second  and  third  epistles, 
which   are   both   of  extreme   brevity,   are   simply 


£02    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

specimens   of   Christian   correspondence  in   which 
spiritual  instruction  is  incidentally  interwoven. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  total  influence  of 
such  a  one  as  John  upon  the  movement  which 
Christ  set  in  operation.  There  is  no  reason, 
however,  to  suppose  that  he  was  less  tolerant,  or 
charitable,  or  open-minded  to  the  truth,  or  less 
devoted,  than  his  intimate  but  more  conspicuous 
associate,  with  whose  work  his  own  was,  for  so 
long  a  time,  so  closely  linked.  If  Peter  stands 
first  in  apostolic  influence  in  those  early  years, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  John  should  not  be 
a  close  second. 

But  in  summing  up  John's  life  and  trying  to 
form  some  conception  of  his  particular  contribu- 
tion to  the  movement  of  Christianity  during  the 
first  century,  we  must  not  fail  to  lay  special 
stress  upon  the  work  of  his  closing  years — ^both 
upon  what  he  did  in  conserving  the  work  which 
had  already  been  accomplished  in  the  important 
field  where  he  labored,  and  in  providing  a  body 
of  positive  doctrine  which  fittingly  forms  the  cap- 
stone of  the  arch  of  truth  which  has  been  left 
us  by  the  early  champions  of  the  gospel.  If 
Peter  was  the  apostle  of  hope,  and  Paul  of  prog- 
ress, John  was  the  apostle  of  love — a  review  of 
whose  life  and  work  would  perhaps  more  fittingly 
conclude  these  studies  than  to  appear  in  this 
place. 


CHAPTER  IV 

STEPHEN 

It  is  not  easy  for  us  to-day  fully  to  understand 
or  to  appreciate  the  religious  situation  in  Jeru- 
salem for  a  considerable  period  after  Christ's  de- 
parture. The  disciples,  now  apostles,  continued 
there,  hard  at  work  in  preaching,  teaching,  and 
winning  men  to  the  new  faith.  Yet  with  all  their 
spiritual  enlightenment,  it  was  long  before  they 
arrived  at  the  full,  rounded  conception  of  the 
scope  and  relations  of  Christianity  as  it  lay  in 
the  mind  of  Christ.  Rarely,  if  at  all,  in  those 
early  days,  did  it  occur  to  anyone  that  it  was 
intended  for  any  but  Jews,  or  those  who  should 
first  become  Jews  in  order  to  share  in  its  benefits ; 
that  it  was  ever  to  break  away  from  its  connection 
with  Judaism,  and  pursue  its  own  independent 
course  in  the  world;  that  it  was  to  become  uni- 
versal, without  local  habitation  or  headquarters, 
designed  for  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men 
everywhere,  in  all  lands,  in  all  ages,  upon  the 
fulfillment  of  the  simple  conditions  of  repentance 
and  faith.  Or,  if  any  did  gain  a  glimpse  of  these 
larger  views,  it  would  have  been  regarded  as  rank 
heresy,  even  blasphemy — i.  e.,  disloyalty  or  trea- 
son to  the  Mosaic  system — to  express  them. 
303 


204i    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Hence  when  Stephen  arose  at  length  and  boldly 
did  this  very  thing,  it  is  not  strange,  perhaps, 
considering  the  narrow  and  exclusive  spirit  of  the 
Jewish  leaders  and  the  Jewish  people,  and  the 
tenacity  with  which  they  clung  to  the  old  Mosaic 
ritual,  that  it  should  arouse  violent  opposition. 
Yet  here,  in  the  brief  narrative  of  this  one  man, 
of  clearer  and  broader  vision  than  his  contempo- 
rary Christians — even  of  the  apostles  themselves 
at  that  time — we  have,  strictly  speaking,  the  be- 
ginning of  a  mighty  movement  within  Christianity 
itself,  which  finally  led  to  the  bursting  of  its 
Judaic  fetters,  and  its  complete  emancipation 
from  the  ritual  system  of  the  Jews — henceforth 
to  be  recognized  as  the  one  universal  religion. 

The  particular  incidents  which  we  are  to  con- 
sider and  by  which  only  we  gain  an  insight  into 
the  life  and  character  and  views  of  Stephen,  are 
set  forth  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of  the 
book  of  Acts.  They  occurred  before  this  general 
broadening  of  view,  this  expansion  idea,  had  come 
to  prevail.  The  Jewish  Christians  had  not 
broken  away  from  the  Mosaic  observances.  Even 
the  disciples  continued  to  conform  to  many  of 
them.  No  one  seemed  to  think  of  anything  other- 
wise, or  of  any  inconsistency  in  so  doing,  least  of 
all  that  the  acceptance  of  the  gospel  would  in- 
volve a  rupture  with  Judaism  and  its  customs. 
No  question  as  to  the  permanency  of  the  Mosaic 
system,  or  as  to  its  being  in  any  way  superseded 


STEPHEN  205 

by  the  new  faith,  was  raised  or  seemed  to  be 
thought  of.  To  the  Jewish  Christians,  Christian- 
ity was  simply  a  new  phase,  an  advanced  develop- 
ment, really  a  part,  a  culmination  of  Judaism. 
The  temporary  and  typical  character  of  both  the 
tabernacle  and  the  Temple  and  the  entire  Mosaic 
system,  though  distinctly  intimated  in  the  Jewish 
Scriptures,  had  not  apparently  occurred  to  any- 
one until  Stephen  arose  and  suggested  it.  His 
thoughts  and  teachings  were  in  advance  of  his 
time,  and,  as  has  not  been  unusual,  he  had  to  pay 
the  penalty  of  it. 

The  work  of  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  had  been 
growing  so  rapidly  that  they  found  it  impractica- 
ble, at  length,  to  give  their  personal  attention  to 
the  distribution  of  charities  among  needy  Chris- 
tians, which  had  come  to  be  a  large  and  impor- 
tant responsibility.  Many  of  these  were  Greek 
speaking  Jews,  as  they  were  called,  or  Hellenists, 
who  had  come  from  the  various  provinces  about, 
as  distinguished  from  the  native  or  Palestinian 
Jews.  A  fund  had  been  provided  toward  the  sup- 
port of  the  more  needy  converts  among  both  these 
classes.  Some  complaint  having  arisen  that  there 
had  been  unfairness  in  the  distribution  by  those 
who  had  been  appointed  to  the  work,  that  the 
widows,  especially,  of  the  Hellenists  or  Greek 
speaking  Jews  were  being  neglected  in  the  daily 
ministrations,  the  apostles  took  steps  not  only 
to  remove  all  grounds  of  complaint,  but  at  the 
same  time  to  relieve  themselves  of  the  burden  of 


206    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

looking  after  the  distribution  of  alms  altogether. 
They  proposed  that  the  Christian  people  of  Jeru- 
salem select  seven  men,  in  whom  they  had  full  con- 
fidence, to  have  charge  of  the  whole  business,  in 
order  that  they  themselves  might  be  left  free  to 
give  their  undivided  attention  to  the  work  of 
preaching  the  gospel.  Their  suggestion  com- 
mended itself  to  the  Christian  company  and  was 
adopted.  Thereupon  seven  men  of  good  report 
among  them  were  selected,  and  these  were  form- 
ally inducted  into  their  new  oflSce — commonly, 
since  then,  called  that  of  deacon — with  the  laying 
on  of  hands. 

The  first  and  most  prominent  name  in  this  list 
was  that  of  Stephen,  of  whom  it  is  expressly 
stated  that  he  was  "full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
Spirit."  His  character  and  abilities,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  narrative,  were  evidently  of  a  high 
order.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life  and 
training,  not  even  of  his  conversion.  Up  to  this 
time  his  name  had  not  occurred  in  Christian  his- 
tory. Although  it  is  not  certain  that  he  was  a 
Hellenist,  there  seems  to  be  considerable  ground 
for  the  belief  that  he  was  one.  He  must  have 
been  a  diligent  and  independent  student  of  Scrip- 
ture, for  when  at  length  he  appears  for  a  brief 
interval  upon  the  stage,  it  is  with  fully  matured 
views,  which  were,  in  many  respects,  far  in  ad- 
vance of  his  contemporary  Christians.  Very 
likely,  in  his  thought  respecting  the  new  faith, 
he  had  been  led  to  seize  upon  its  more  universal 


STEPHEN  207 

and  enduring  aspects,  in  distinction  from  those 
which  were  purely  local  and  temporary.  He 
would  be  quick  to  recognize  its  superiority,  with 
its  spiritual  character,  to  the  Mosaic  ritual  with 
its  external  rites  and  material  sacrifices.  He 
would  be  likely  to  perceive,  also,  that  instead  of 
being  a  part  of  Judaism,  it  was  really  distinct 
from  it,  its  ripened  fruitage.  In  due  time  it 
would  leave  Judaism  behind  as  having  accom- 
plished its  mission,  would,  in  fact,  supersede  the 
old  system  altogether.  In  this  broader  view 
which  he  would  take,  he  would  not  fail  to  see  that 
God,  as  a  spirit,  could  not  be  confined  to  any 
one  locality,  but  would  be  able  to  be,  and  would 
be  worshiped,  anywhere,  and  this  not  necessarily 
in  Jerusalem  or  any  other  stated  place. 

Stephen's  work  was  not  confined  to  the  distri- 
bution of  alms,  to  which  duty  he  had  been  spe- 
cifically called,  important  as  that  duty  was.  In 
addition  to  his  qualifications  for  that  office,  he 
possessed  gifts  which  fitted  him  for  preaching 
also,  and  for  performing  miracles — functions 
which  were  characteristically  apostolic.  In  this 
sphere  he  was  remarkably  successful,  and  became 
conspicuous  because  of  his  effectiveness  and 
power.  Many  converts  were  won  to  Christ 
through  his  efforts. 

It  seems  that  the  foreign  bom  Jews  in  Jeru- 
salem had  synagogues  of  their  own,  named  from 
their  respective  provinces,  whenever  their  num- 
bers were  sufficient  to  maintain  them.     To  these 


208   THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

synagogues  the  visiting  Jews  from  the  different 
countries  represented  would  naturally  resort.  It 
was  here,  also,  that  Stephen  mainly  preached. 
After  he  had  given  utterance,  in  setting  forth  the 
claims  of  Christ,  to  views  which  ran  counter  to 
some  of  the  Jewish  prejudices  of  his  bearers,  he 
was  challenged  by  their  leaders  to  public  dispu- 
tation. But  it  soon  became  evident  that  they 
were  no  match  for  the  lay  preacher.  His  power 
and  skill  as  a  controversalist  were  such  that  they 
were  speedily  discomfited.  Then  it  was,  smarting 
under  defeat,  that  they  had  recourse  to  base 
means  to  accomplish  their  purpose.  They  ac- 
cused Stephen  falsely,  suborned  witnesses,  stirred 
up  all  those  who  did  not  believe  in  Christ — ^judges, 
elders,  scribes — -and  brought  him  before  the 
Council  to  answer  for  himself. 

As  one  of  the  synagogues  in  which  Stephen 
preached  was  of  the  Cilicians,  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  Saul  of  Tarsus  may  have  been  a 
member  of  it,  and,  if  so,  that  he  may  have  been 
one  of  the  keenest  antagonists  with  whom  Stephen 
had  to  contend.  And  if  such  were  the  case,  it 
would  not  be  at  all  improbable  that  many  of  the 
truths  to  which  Stephen  gave  utterance,  though 
they  may  have  inflamed  tlie  rage  of  the  young 
Pharisee  at  the  time,  may  also  have  been  so  lodged 
in  his  mind  as  to  become  the  germs  of  much  which, 
after  the  scales  had  fallen  from  his  eyes  and  he 
became  a  Christian  disciple,  he  himself  taught 
later. 


STEPHEN  209 

We  are  not  told  what,  in  particular,  was  the 
nature  of  the  charges  which  were  brought  against 
Stephen,  but  they  were  no  doubt  based  upon  the 
expression  on  his  part  of  some  such  views  as 
have  been  indicated,  viz.,  that  acceptable  worship 
of  God.  was  not  limited  to  any  one  place,  not  even 
the  Temple  in  the  Holy  City,  as  Christ  had  al- 
ready intimated  in  his  conversation  with  the 
woman  of  Samaria;  also  that  as  there  had  been  a 
progressive  development  of  religious  institutions 
and  worship  all  through  Jewish  history,  each  suc- 
cessive stage  of  progress  giving  way,  after  its 
own  mission  was  accomplished,  to  that  which  came 
after — so  as  Christianity  in  its  spiritual  character 
was  an  advance  upon  Judaism  with  its  material 
sacrifice  and  worship,  the  latter  would,  as  soon  as 
its  mission  was  achieved,  be  superseded  by  the 
former.  Perhaps  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  look 
forward  to  a  time  when  Jew  and  Gentile  would 
stand  on  a  common  footing  before  the  Most  High. 
We  can  only  infer  what  these  views  were — and  not 
even  this  with  entire  confidence — ^by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  address  in  his  own  defense  which  he 
was  permitted  to  make  before  the  Jewish  High 
Council. 

Concerning  the  precise  purpose  of  this  address, 
there  has  been  not  a  little  diversity  of  opinion. 
Yet  it  would  seem  to  have  been  intended  at  least 
to  cover  the  particular  points  at  issue — perhaps 
also  to  vindicate  his  position  in  general  in  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  Christian  religion.     There 


^10    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

would  seem  to  be  little  reason  for  questioning  the 
essential  historicity  of  the  address  itself,  notwith- 
standing some  apparent  inaccuracies  of  state- 
ment which  are  contained  in  it.  If  we  understood 
fully  the  circumstances,  some  of  the  latter  might, 
perhaps,  be  relieved.  At  all  events,  we  have  no 
guarantee  of  Stephen's  inerrancy,  however  cor- 
rectly his  address  may  have  been  reported. 

The  liberal  views  which  Stephen  held  would  be 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  dangerous  and  as  cal- 
culated to  do  great  mischief.  Knowing  the  char- 
acter of  his  hearers,  their  bigotry  and  prejudice, 
we  can  understand  how  they  would  chafe  to  get 
Stephen  in  their  power  and  compel  him  to  desist. 
It  was  in  this  spirit  and  with  this  in  view,  that 
they  had  him  arrested  and  arraigned  for  trial. 
The  witnesses  on  whom  they  relied  to  sustain  their 
charges — who  are  called  false  witnesses — ^may  yet 
have  stated  some  things  which,  while  literally  true, 
at  the  same  time  so  misrepresented  and  perverted 
what  he  actually  said,  and  the  spirit  of  all,  that 
their  testimony  was  virtually  false.  Yet  there 
must  have  been  some  foundation,  some  occasion, 
for  what  they  said. 

We  can  picture  to  our  minds  the  excitement 
and  the  tumult,  as  the  people  crowded  into  the 
court  room.  Yet  excited  and  noisy  as  the  scene 
must  have  been,  and  clamorous  as  the  Jews  were 
for  Stephen's  condemnation,  all  was  calm  and 
peaceful  in  the  heart  of  the  accused.  He  prob- 
ably realized  the  hopelessness  of  his  case  in  such 


STEPHEN  ailj 

an  atmosphere  and  before  such  a  tribunal — the 
same  which  had  condemned  the  Lord  Jesus  him- 
self— and  had  yielded  with  full  resignation  of 
mind  to  what  seemed  his  inevitable  fate.  The 
record  states  that  as  the  people  gazed  on  him, 
they  saw  his  face  "as  it  had  been  the  face  of  an 
angel." 

If  we  assume  that  the  main  points  which 
Stephen  sought  to  maintain  in  this  address,  in 
addition  to  a  general  vindication  of  his  position, 
were,  first,  in  regard  to  the  non-essential  relation 
of  locality  to  the  worship  of  God,  in  view  of  the 
spiritual  character  of  true  worship,  and  second, 
as  to  the  temporary  and  typical  nature  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  it  having  fulfilled  its  mission  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  higher  revelation  of 
Christianity — the  former  controverting  the  Jew- 
ish idea  that  in  Jerusalem  alone  and  in  connection 
with  the  Temple  could  acceptable  worship  and 
sacrifice  be  offered,  the  latter  in  opposition  to 
the  prevailing  view  as  to  the  permanence  of  the 
Mosaic  system — we  find  much  in  the  address  to 
sustain  these  positions.  Simply  to  read  it  as  it 
stands,  it  might  seem  to  be  but  a  resume  of  lead- 
ing incidents  in  the  history  of  Israel,  without  ap- 
parent aim.  But  the  truth  probably  is  that 
Stephen  was  making  history  do  the  work  of  ar- 
gument, the  full  force  of  which  would  be  more 
apparent  if  we  were  fully  acquainted  with  all  the 
facts  bearing  on  the  situation  at  the  time,  and 
which  his  hearers  would  not  be  slow  to  recognize. 


21g    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

In  his  address  Stephen  declared  that  even  be- 
fore the  Temple  was  built,  and  in  other  places 
than  the  Holy  City  or  the  land  of  Palestine,  there 
had  been  acceptable  worship  of  God.  This  dec- 
laration was  sustained  by  Scriptural  instances 
confirmatory  of  it.  So  there  might  be  acceptable 
worship  in  other  places,  after  the  Temple  should 
have  passed  away.  There  was  no  difference  in 
holiness  as  between  one  place  and  another. 
There  might  be  acceptable  worship  anywhere. 
So  in  regard  to  the  question  as  to  the  permanency 
of  the  Mosaic  ritual  system.  All  through  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  people  there  had  been  a 
gradual  development  or  evolution  in  their  reli- 
gious life  and  institutions.  As  one  thing  after 
another  had  been  added,  that  which  had  preceded 
and  constituted  a  preparation  for  it  had  been 
set  aside,  its  mission  accomplished.  The  Taber- 
nacle with  its  ritual  had  been  superseded  by  the 
Temple  and  its  worship.  When  the  law  was  given 
at  Sinai  at  the  hands  of  Moses,  the  latter  had  in- 
timated that  another  prophet  than  himself  would 
in  due  time  arise,  and  introduce  a  new  dispensa- 
tion or  economy.  The  prophet  then  predicted 
had  at  length  come  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  Stephen,  in  his  loyalty  to  him,  was  but  fol- 
lowing out  the  injunction  of  the  great  lawgiver 
himself.  The  Jews,  on  the  contrary,  by  their 
refusal  to  recognize  and  receive  him,  had  dis- 
obeyed Moses.  Yet  this  was  but  in  keeping  with 
the    spirit    which    had    all    along    animated    them 


STEPHEN  ^13 

through  their  history.  Their  fathers  had  re- 
sisted the  prophets  and  opposed  any  advanced 
step  which  they  had  proposed.  "As  your  fathers 
did,"  Stephen  concluded,  "so  do  ye.  Which  of 
the  prophets  did  they  not  persecute.?  They  have 
killed  them  that  showed  before  of  the  coming  of 
the  righteous  One;  of  whom  ye  have  now  become 
betrayers  and  murderers ;  ye  who  received  the  law 
as  it  was  ordained  by  angels,  and  kept  it  not." 

Such  was  Stephen's  terrible  arraignment  of  his 
accusers  before  the  bar  of  God,  as  he  himself 
stood  there  arraigned  before  that  human  tribunal. 
The  effect  which  it  produced  it  is  not  difficult  to 
imagine,  knowing  as  we  do  the  character  of  the 
men  before  him.  "They  were  cut  to  the  heart, 
and  they  gnashed  on  him  with  their  teeth."  It 
was  no  longer  a  question  of  fairness  or  justice — ■ 
it  was  simply,  in  their  anger,  how  to  get  rid  of 
him.  Regardless  of  the  forms  of  law,  and  more 
in  the  spirit  of  a  mob  than  that  of  judges,  they 
rushed  upon  Stephen,  even,  as  is  probable,  before 
the  conclusion  of  his  address,  and  hurried  him 
out  of  the  Council  chamber  to  the  common  place 
of  execution  outside  the  walls  of  the  city,  that 
they  might  stone  him  to  death. 

But  none  of  these  things  had  any  terror  for 
Stephen.  He  was  inwardly  prepared  for  the 
worst  which  his  enemies  might  do,  and  calmly 
awaited  his  end.  Being  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
he  looked  up  steadfastly  into  heaven,  and  saw  the 
glory  of  God,  and  Jesus  standing  on  his  right 


S14*     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

hand.  His  declaration  of  this  but  served  to  in- 
crease the  rage  of  his  persecutors,  and  they  went 
on  with  their  deadly  work.  The  witnesses,  lay- 
ing aside  their  upper  garments  and  committing 
them  to  the  care  of  Saul  of  Tarsus — a  name  which 
was  afterward  to  become  the  most  conspicuous  in 
the  annals  of  the  early  church — cast  the  first 
stones,  Stephen  meanwhile  calling  upon  the  Lord 
and  saying,  "Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit." 
Then,  following  the  example  of  his  Master,  he 
added,  "Lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge,"  and 
in  the  midst  of  that  raging  mob  and  with  the 
atones  falling  about  him,  he  passed  away,  or, 
as  the  record  states,  "he  fell  asleep." 

Thus  perished  Stephen,  the  first  Christian 
martyr,  the  first  to  give  up  his  life  for  his  loyalty 
to  Jesus  Christ.  The  sorrowing  disciples  tend- 
erly gathered  up  the  battered  and  bleeding  re- 
mains and  bore  them  to  their  burial,  there  to 
await  the  morning  of  the  resurrection. 

Stephen's  career  had  been  brief.  For  a  mo- 
ment only,  as  it  were,  he  had  stepped  out  into  the 
full  light  of  history,  but  that  appearance  made 
an  indelible  impression  upon  the  early  develop- 
ment of  Christianity.  It  led  to  consequences  of 
which  the  martyr  himself  probably  little  dreamed. 
His  speech  and  death  marked  a  crisis — the  be- 
ginning of  the  transition  of  Christianity  from  its 
earliest  Jewish  form,  to  its  expansion  to  include 
the    Gentiles   in   its    privileges;   the   changing   of 


STEPHEN  215 

the  Christian  church  into  the  church  of  the 
Gentiles  and  the  world;  "the  beginning  of  the 
severance  of  two  institutions  which  had  not  yet 
c?iscovered  that  they  were  mutually  irreconcil- 
able." Much  earlier  than  the  twelve  even,  Stephen 
had  arrived  at  the  true  appreciation  of  the  words 
of  Jesus  respecting  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
new  kingdom. 

After  the  death  of  Stephen,  the  Sanhedrin,  now 
thoroughly  aroused  against  the  disciples  of  Christ 
and  their  religion,  determined  to  suppress  the 
new  sect  altogether.  It  must  be  stamped  out 
once  for  all,  before  it  had  opportunity  for  further 
expansion.  Accordingly  a  general  proscription 
of  the  sect  was  issued.  Meetings  were  broken  up, 
men  and  women  were  arrested,  imprisoned,  and 
Christians  were  persecuted  throughout  the  land, 
even  to  distant  cities.  The  leader  in  this  move- 
ment was  the  young  Saul  of  Tarsus,  at  whose 
feet  the  witnesses  against  Stephen  had  laid  their 
clothes  before  proceeding  to  stone  him.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  persecution,  a  great  body  of  dis- 
ciples fled  from  the  city,  most  of  them  scattering 
through  Judea  and  Samaria,  but  many  of  them 
going  much  farther,  even  into  Phoenicia,  Cyprus, 
and  Antioch  in  northern  Syria.  The  apostles 
themselves  seem  to  have  continued  in  Jerusalem, 
perhaps  in  hiding  for  the  time  being,  evidently 
considering  it  their  duty  to  remain  at  the  head- 
quarters of  their  work. 


216    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Yet  all  these  events,  disheartening  as  they  must 
have  been  to  Christian  believers  at  the  time, 
turned  out,  providentially,  to  be  the  most  effective 
means  of  extending  a  knowledge  of  the  new  re- 
ligion. Wherever  these  persecuted  believers  went, 
they  continued  to  bear  their  testimony  to  the 
faith  as  before,  and  many  were  converted  to  itj 
not  merely  of  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes,  but 
some  even  from  the  ranks  of  the  Gentiles.  More 
than  this,  the  mantle  of  Stephen,  shortly  after  his 
death,  seems  to  have  fallen  on  the  very  one  who 
had  taken  the  lead  in  this  persecuting  movement. 
As  Saul,  afterward  called  Paul,  was  on  his  way  to 
Damascus,  still  "breathing  out  threatenings  and 
slaughter"  upon  those  of  the  Christian  sect,  with 
authority  to  carry  on  his  dreadful  work  to  that 
city,  he  was  himself  converted  to  the  very  faith 
he  had  sought  to  crush  out.  It  is  not  at  all  im- 
probable that  the  very  truths  which  had  fallen 
from  Stephen's  lips  had  been  so  working  in  his 
mind  that  he  was  at  last  brought  to  the  convic- 
tion that  Stephen  was  right,  and  that  he  was 
wrong.  It  may  have  been  under  this  strong  con- 
viction that  he  was  led  to  make  the  great  decision 
by  which  he  became,  later,  the  world's  champion 
for  the  cause  of  Christ,  and  the  means  of  achiev- 
ing the  very  results  which  Stephen  had  sought, 
but  in  vain,  to  bring  about.  Stephen,  in  his 
thought,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  forerun- 
ners of  Paul,  as  Philip  the  evangelist  became  his 
forerunner  in  action. 


STEPHEN  217 

In  the  case  of  Stephen  we  have  a  noble  illus- 
tration of  a  man  with  the  courage  of  his  convic- 
tions. He  had  come  to  believe  in  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah  of  the  Scriptures,  which  had  been  his 
constant  study.  He  was  led  to  believe  also  that 
the  gospel  which  Jesus  proclaimed  was  fitted  to 
the  needs  of  universal  humanity,  of  man  as  man, 
and  that  it  was  designed  for  all  men,  and  not 
simply  for  Jews.  These  convictions,  though  at 
variance  with  the  prevailing  Jewish  opinion,  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  declare.  Notwithstanding  op- 
position, he  continued  to  bear  his  testimony, 
clearly  and  positively.  Finally  his  opposers,  un- 
able to  meet  his  arguments,  sought  to  put  him 
out  of  the  way,  which  they  succeeded  at  length  in 
doing.  But  while  his  opposers  are  forgotten, 
save  as  they  were  connected  with  his  persecution 
and  his  death,  Stephen's  own  name  stands  out  in 
glorious  contrast  with  theirs,  immortalized  in 
Scripture,  and  an  example  for  all  time  of  heroic 
devotion  to  principle  and  of  loyalty  to  convic- 
tions. 

We  alsa  have  an  example,  in  the  results  of  the 
persecution  and  death  of  Stephen,  of  how  the 
cause  of  truth  for  which  one  becomes  a  martyr, 
and  which  it  is  sought  by  violence  to  stamp  out, 
often  becomes  all  the  stronger,  more  firmly  rooted, 
more  widely  extended,  because  of  the  opposition 
it  has  encountered.  Stephen's  campaign  of  ideas 
did  not  appear  to  bear  immediate  fruitage,  but 
these  ideas  evidently  sank  into  the  minds  of  many, 


S18     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

took  root,  and  afterward  sprung  up  and  spread 
widely,  never  again  to  be  suppressed.  His  de- 
fense was  unsuccessful  so  far  as  the  preservation 
of  his  own  life  was  concerned,  but  his  arguments 
were  not  lost.  His  persecutors  could  kill  him, 
but  they  could  not  recall  or  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  words  which  he  had  spoken,  and  these  pro- 
duced results  long  after  he  who  spoke  them  had 
passed  away.  The  very  fact  of  persecution  only 
advertises  the  more  the  truth  for  which  one  is 
made  to  suffer,  and  those  of  calm  judgment  are 
led  to  examine  it  dispassionately,  where  otherwise 
their  attention  might  not  be  turned  to  it  at  all. 
If  it  commends  itself  to  them,  they  are  likely  to 
accept  it,  and  so  the  truth  makes  its  way  among 
men.  In  Stephen's  case,  we  have  a  conspicuous 
instance  of  how  the  blood  of  the  martyr  became 
the  seed  of  the  church. 

But  the  one  fact  which  stands  out  with  special 
prominence  in  the  career  of  Stephen,  is  that  of 
the  relation  of  his  work  to  the  progress  of  the 
great  movement  which  Christ  had  inaugurated, 
and  which  he  committed  to  his  followers  to  carry 
on  after  him.  In  this  movement,  each  leader  had 
his  place,  his  own  special  contribution  to  make, 
and  all  together  they  wrought  for  its  success. 
There  were  many  things  in  the  teachings  of  Christ 
whose  meaning  only  gradually  dawned  upon  the 
minds  of  the  disciples.  They  were  not  under- 
stood  at  the  time  they  were  uttered,  and  their 


STEPHEN  219 

meaning  seemed  to  be  held  In  abeyance  for  a  long 
time  afterward.  Consequently  Christianity,  in 
its  broad  and  universal  character,  was  hardly 
thought  of  for  a  considerable  period  after  Christ's 
departure.  Its  world-wide  features  seem  first  to 
have  been  perceived,  at  least  proclaimed,  by 
Stephen.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  of 
the  Christian  converts  who  had  any  clear  appre- 
hension of  many  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  the 
relation  of  Christianity  to  Judaism.  He  saw  that 
Christianity,  rather  than  Judaism,  was  the  goal 
of  Hebrew  history.  It  would  supersede  Judaism 
from  the  nature  of  the  case.  It  was  fitted  to 
spread  over  the  earth  as  Judaism  was  not.  And 
it  would  include  in  its  ranks  the  great  mass  of 
Gentiles,  as  well  as  of  Jews  merely,  and  these  on 
equal  terms.  All  this  was  clear  to  him,  although 
not  even  the  apostles  seem  as  yet  to  have  discerned 
it.  But  when  he  began  to  promulgate  such  views, 
fortifying  them  by  Scripture,  and  boldly  to  de- 
clare things  which  were  contrary  to  long  es- 
tablished Jewish  tradition,  the  Jews  were  stirred 
up  against  him,  and  martyrdom  was  the  result. 
Stephen  was  in  advance  of  his  time,  but  he  made 
a  distinct  contribution  to  the  New  Testament 
movement.  It  was  literally  a  campaign  of  ideas 
which  he  entered  upon,  but  these  ideas  formed  an 
essential  element  of  its  development.  That  which 
the  Jews  regarded  as  their  own  peculiar  posses- 
sion, Stephen  saw  was  simply  given  to  them  in 


220    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

trust  for  the  benefit  of  the  world,  and  his  in- 
fluence helped  mightily,  in  its  outcome,  to  bring 
this  about.  Others  carried  on  the  work  after 
him,  but  he  was  the  pioneer. 


CHAPTER  V 
PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST 

The  next  one  after  Stephen  to  give  a  decided 
impulse  to  an  enlarged  conception,  among  the 
early  Christians,  of  the  scope  of  the  gospel,  was 
Philip,  also  one  of  the  seven,  and  who  is  spoken 
of  in  the  records  as  Philip  the  evangelist.  If  he 
was  not  a  Hellenist  or  Greek  speaking  Jew,  he 
was,  in  his  thought  and  sympathy,  an  exceedingly 
liberal-minded  Hebrew.  Stephen  had  made  a  brief 
but  notable  campaign,  for  the  times,  of  progres- 
sive ideas,  declaring  boldly  against  the  exclusive, 
spirit  of  the  Jews ;  repudiating  their  claim  to  a 
monopoly  of  the  divine  favor;  setting  forth 
clearly  the  true  relation  of  Judaism  to  Christian- 
ity— the  former  designed  to  be  of  but  temporary 
duration,  the  latter  intended  to  be  permanent. 
In  the  advanced  views  which  he  advocated,  he 
may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of 
the  apostle  Paul,  the  great  champion  of  an  open 
door  Christianity  for  the  whole  world. 

But  if  the  first  martyr  was  the  forerunner  of 

the  great  apostle  in  the  realm  of  progressive  ideas, 

Philip  was  his  precursor  in  the  application  of  the 

same,  both  in  zealous  missionary  operations,  and 
221 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

especially  in  opening  the  door  of  the  church  to 
non- Jewish  believers. 

How  all  this  came  about,  it  will  be  the  aim  of 
this  chapter  to  set  forth. 


The  preaching  of  the  liberal-minded  Stephen 
not  unnaturally  stirred  up  the  more  narrow  and 
conservative  Jews.  They  were  inflamed  against 
him.  To  them  he  seemed  to  be  the  setter  forth 
of  dangerous,  heretical  views,  views  which 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  Jewish  faith. 
The  outcome  of  all  was,  first,  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen,  then  a  persecution  of  all  bearing  the 
Christian  name.  Saul  of  Tarsus,  who  afterward 
became  Paul  the  apostle,  took  a  conspicuous  part 
in  both  the  martyrdom  and  the  persecution.  The 
object  of  the  latter  was,  if  possible,  to  stamp  out 
the  hated  Christian  sect  altogether.  In  conse- 
quence, many  of  the  Christians  fled  from  Jeru- 
salem. But  so  filled  were  they  with  the  love  of 
Christ  and  with  zeal  for  his  cause,  that  they  con- 
tinued to  bear  witness  for  him  and  to  preach 
wherever  they  went.  Thus  a  knowledge  of  the 
gospel  was  disseminated,  a  widespread  interest 
was  awakened,  and  many  were  led  to  believe. 

Among  those  who  thus  went  forth  v/as  Philip. 
He  went  into  Samaria,  perhaps  to  the  city 
of  that  name.  Like  his  colleague  Stephen,  he 
seems  to  have  had  gifts  for  a  wider  sphere  than 
that  of  merely  serving  tables  or  the  distribution 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST 

of  alms.  He  was  an  effective  lay  preacher,  pos- 
sessed of  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and  his 
ministrations  among  the  Samaritans  were  so  suc- 
cessful that  an  extended  revival  sprung  up. 
Hated  as  they  were  by  the  Jews,  Philip,  freed 
from  all  prejudice,  as  gladly  embraced  the  op- 
portunity of  declaring  the  gospel  to  them  as  to 
his  own  countrymen. 

The  Samaritans  were  a  peculiar  people.  They 
were  neither  Jews  nor  Gentiles,  though  they  were 
descendants  from  both — i.  e.,  from  colonists  from 
the  East  whom  the  Assyrian  king  had  placed  in 
the  land  of  Israel  when  the  leading  inhabitants 
of  the  country  were  carried  into  captivity  at 
the  time  of  the  fall  of  Samaria  in  B.  C.  721,  and 
from  the  Jews  whom  the  king  permitted  to  re- 
main. 

At  first  these  colonists  continued,  in  their  new 
home,  the  idolatrous  practices  in  which  they  had 
been  reared,  but  later  they  partially  embraced  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  as  the  recognized  God  of  the 
land.  They  accepted  the  law  of  Moses  and  prac- 
ticed the  Jewish  rite  of  circumcision.  The 
Pentateuch  constituted  their  only  Scripture,  and 
they  had  a  temple  of  their  own  and  temple  serv- 
ices on  Mount  Gerizim.  But  although  their  re- 
ligion and  their  worship  were  perverted  by  the 
admixture  of  foreign  elements,  and  they  were 
isolated  from  their  distinctively  Jewish  neighbors 
by  a  feud  which  had  continued  for  many  genera- 
tions,   there    was    still    not    a   little    which   they 


^U    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

had  in  common  with  them  in  the  matter  of  reli- 
gious worship,  and  they  looked  for  the  same  Mes- 
siah. Yet  notwithstanding  their  partial  Hebrew 
descent  and  their  partial  acceptance  of  the  tenets 
of  Judaism,  they  were  rigidly  excluded  from  the 
Jewish  church,  and  were  even  denied  the  privileges 
accorded  to  the  heathen,  of  becoming  proselytes 
to  the  Jewish  faith. 

It  was  among  these  Samaritans  that  Philip 
went  and  preached  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ, 
and  administered  the  rite  of  baptism  to  such  as 
believed.  It  was  a  great  step  forward,  in  the 
circumstances,  for  him  to  take,  but  any  question 
as  to  the  propriety  of  his  doing  so,  on  the  one 
hand,  or  of  the  Samaritans  receiving  the  gospel, 
on  the  other,  seems  not  to  have  been  raised  on 
either  side.  Perhaps  Philip  had  learned  of  the 
fact  that  on  one  occasion,  at  least,  during  the 
Lord's  ministry,  there  were  not  a  few  Samaritans 
who  had  believed  on  and  been  accepted  by  him. 
At  all  events,  many  of  the  people  were  now  led  to 
believe  through  Philip's  preaching,  and  a  move- 
ment was  inaugurated  which  later  became  wide- 
spread in  the  city  where  he  labored  and  in  the 
regions  about.  Even  Simon  Magus,  the  sorcerer 
— who  had  acquired  a  large  influence  in  the  city 
by  reason  of  his  magic  arts,  so  that  all  the  people 
gave  heed  to  him  as  of  one  having  divine  power — 
was  so  impressed  by  Philip's  preaching  and  the 
signs  which  he  wrought,  that  he  was  led — al- 
though   as   it    afterward   proved,   with   a  divided 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST         ^25 

heart — to  become  a  believer  and  to  accept  bap- 
tism. 

Reports  of  this  work  of  Philip  were  not  slow 
in  reaching  the  apostles,  who,  in  spite  of  the  per- 
secution, continued  to  prosecute  their  work  in 
Jerusalem.  Thereupon  they  concluded  to  send 
a  delegation  from  their  number  to  the  scene  of 
Philip's  labors,  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the 
work,  its .  regularity,  and  presumably  to  give  it 
their  endorsement  and  assistance  in  case  they 
should  find  everything  satisfactory.  No  more 
suitable  men  could  have  been  selected,  both  from 
their  prominence  and  from  their  experience,  than 
Peter  and  John.  They  found  the  work  entirely 
satisfactory,  and  at  once  threw  themselves  into 
it.  They  prayed  for  the  converts  that  they  might 
receive  the  Holy  Spirit  who  had  as  yet  fallen 
upon  none  of  them.  "Then  they  laid  their  hands 
on  them,  and  they  received  the  Holy  Spirit." 
Having  completed  their  work  in  this  city  of 
Samaria,  Peter  and  John  turned  their  faces  to- 
ward Jerusalem,  preaching  the  gospel,  however, 
in  many  of  the  Samaritan  villages  on  the  way. 

Thus  had  Philip  become  instrumental  in  break- 
ing, to  some  extent,  the  barriers  of  a  merely  nar- 
row and  provincial  Judaism.  A  notable  step  for- 
ward had  been  taken,  and  not  only  did  the  apostles 
not  disapprove  of  it,  they  had,  through  their  lead- 
ing representatives,  endorsed  it.  If  the  door  was 
not  yet  open  to  out  and  out  Gentiles,  it  was  at 
least  not  shut  against  those  who,  like  the  Samari- 


226    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

tans,  occupied  a  middle  ground  between  the  Jews 
and  Gentiles.  There  was  some  measure  of  prep- 
aration among  them  for  receiving  the  gospel,  and 
no  good  reason  appeared  to  Philip  why  they 
should  not  be  admitted  to  its  privileges.  It  was 
only  step  by  step  that  the  larger,  broader  views 
of  the  gospel  gained  recognition,  and  the  contri- 
bution of  Philip  to  this  end  by  the  course  he  pur- 
sued, was  one  of  signal  moment  at  this  juncture. 

II 

But  the  remarkable  thing  now  is  that  the  one 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  inaugurating  a 
gospel  movement  among  the  Samaritans,  and  who 
seems  to  have  been  fitted  for  large  and  conspicu- 
ous service  anywhere,  is  withdrawn  from  the  field. 
He  is  sent  upon  an  indefinite,  vague  mission,  in  an 
out  of  the  way  place,  so  that  he  went  forth  much 
as  did  Abraham  of  old,  "not  knowing  whither  he 
went."  An  angel  of  the  Lord  spake  to  him,  the 
record  says — perhaps  in  vision  as  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius — saying,  "Arise,  go  toward  the  south, 
unto  the  way  that  goeth  down  to  Gaza  from  Jeru- 
salem, which  is  desert."  This  was  the  injuction, 
with  no  further  explanation.  But  although  no 
reason  for  it  was  given,  and  no  work  in  particular 
was  pointed  out,  Philip's  obedience  was  prompt. 
Still  further  service,  particularly  in  the  way  of 
helping  to  broaden  the  Jewish  conception  of  the 
gospel,  awaited  him,  but  as  yet  no  intimation  of 
its  nature  had  been  given  him. 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST  227 

As  he  journeyed  along  the  desert  way  leading 
toward  Gaza  on  the  coast — the  route  which  a 
traveler  from  Jerusalem  to  Egypt  would  ordi- 
narily follow — he  was  overtaken  by  an  Ethiopian 
eunuch,  an  official  of  high  rank  under  Candace, 
queen  of  the  Ethiopians,  with  his  retinue  of  at- 
tendants. He  was  very  likely  a  proselyte  to  the 
Jewish  religion,  although  the  fact  of  his  being  a 
eunuch  would  render  it  impossible  for  him  to  enter 
into  full  membership  in  the  Jewish  church  (Deut. 
XXIII,  1).  Still,  this  would  not  prevent  him  from 
worshiping  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  Jewish  festivals.  He  had 
been  to  Jerusalem  for  this  purpose,  evidently,  and 
was  now  returning  homeward.  He  was  riding  in 
,a  chariot,  which  was  a  mode  of  travel  suited  to 
his  rank  in  the  country  from  which  he  came,  read- 
ing aloud,  as  he  rode  along,  from  the  book  or  roll, 
of  Isaiah.  Reading  aloud  was  and  is  a  common 
practice  among  orientals,  even  when  reading 
by  themselves. 

In  obedience  to  a  clear  prompting  of  the  Spirit, 
Philip  went  near  to  the  chariot.  This  he  would 
be  able  readily  to  do  in  a  train  of  people  who 
were  journeying  in  the  same  direction,  without 
being  deemed  intrusive.  As  he  did  so,  and  heard 
what  the  eunuch  was  reading,  he  was  moved  to 
inquire  of  him  if  he  understood  what  he  read. 
This  led  to  a  conversation,  and  an  invitation  to 
Philip  to  take  a  seat  beside  the  eunuch  in  the 
chariot  in  order  to  explain  the  passage  he  was 


228    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

reading,  which  proved  to  be  the  fifty-third  chapter 
of  Isaiah.  This  passage  is  rich  in  Messianic  al- 
lusions, especially  in  regard  to  the  sufferings  the 
Messiah  would  have  to  undergo  in  connection  with 
his  missiorf.  Philip  took  advantage  of  this  fact 
and  made  the  passage  the  starting  point  of  his 
discourse.  The  one  referred  to  in  it,  he  ex- 
plained, was  the  Messiah,  who  had  at  length  come 
into  the  world  in  the  person  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  had  suffered,  been  put  to  death,  had  risen 
again,  had  ascended  to  heaven,  where  now  he  was 
enthroned.  His  mission  had  been  to  open  a  way 
of  salvation  to  men.  All  who  would  might  now 
be  saved  through  faith  in  him.  Nor  did  Philip 
fail  to  make  a  practical  application  of  his  dis- 
course. He  urged  upon  the  Ethiopian  the  need 
and  the  duty  of  a  personal  reception  of  this  Mes- 
siah, Jesus ;  his  need  of  him  as  a  Savior  from  sin ; 
and  his  duty  to  recognize  him  as  Lord  and  King. 
It  proved  to  be  the  word  in  season.  The  traveler 
was  satisfied  with  the  explanation  given,  and  de- 
cided then  and  there  to  become  a  disciple  of  Christ. 
In  order  that  the  work  might  be  completed,  he 
requested  that  he  might  receive  the  rite  of  bap- 
tism, which  doubtless  Philip  had  already  ex- 
plained to  him  as  the  way  of  making  a  formal 
avowal  of  his  allegiance  to  Christ.  Reaching  a 
spring  or  stream  of  water,  the  chariot  and  all  the 
retinue  halted,  the  rite  was  performed,  and  one 
who  may  have  been  a  Gentile  by  birth,  was  intro- 
duced into  all  the  privileges  of  the  gospel  and  of 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST         ^29 

Christian  fellowship.  There  might  have  been  rea- 
son, to  one  of  less  breadth  of  mind  than  Philip, 
for  hesitating,  in  the  circumstances,  to  perform 
the  rite,  but  he  did  not  hesitate  a  moment,  and  so 
another  step  was  taken  toward  opening  the  door 
of  the  gospel  to  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men. 
By  receiving  this  man  into  the  Christian  church, 
Philip  virtually  declared  that  disabilities  of  race 
and  outward  condition  have  no  place  there,  but 
that  all  who  believe  in  Christ,  regardless  of  ex- 
ternal circumstances  or  conditions,  are  eligible  to 
membership  and  to  all  its  advantages. 

The  interview  had  been  brief  but  memorable. 
The  whole  current  of  the  life  of  this  eunuch  had 
been  changed  for  all  the  future.  He  went  on,  his 
way  rejoicing,  and  tradition  says  that  he  became 
the  inaugurator  of  a  great  religious  movement  in 
his  own  country,  which  continued  for  genera-, 
tions. 

Philip's  mission  with  the  eunuch — the  impor- 
tant mission  no  doubt  for  which  he  had  been  sent 
hither  from  the  scene  of  his  successful  labors  in 
Samaria^having  been  completed,  the  Spirit 
"caught  him  away" — whatever  precisely  that  ex- 
pression may  mean — and  he  was  introduced  into 
some  other  waiting  field.  It  was  a  signal  service 
to  the  cause  of  Christ  which  he  had  rendered  on 
this  occasion,  as  well  as  in  connection  with  his  la- 
bors in  Samaria.  Very  likely  it  was  for  this  rea- 
son, the  assistance  given  to  the  broadening 
movement  within  the  gospel  sphere,  that  the  au- 


aSO    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

thor  of  the  book  of  Acts  recorded  the  two  inci- 
dents. 

We  know  but  little  of  the  further  work  of 
Philip.  In  general  he  engaged  in  evangelistic 
labors  in  the  Philistinian  towns  between  Azotus 
in  the  southern  or  southwestern  part  of  Pales- 
tine, and  Caesarea,  which  was  some  thirty  miles 
north  of  Joppa  on  the  coast,  and  the  Roman 
capital  of  Judea.  According  to  tradition,  Caesax 
rea  was  his  birthplace,  and  here  he  eventually 
made  his  permanent  home.  The  details  of  his 
work  would  be  interesting,  as  would  the  details  of 
the  evangelistic  work  of  any  and  all  the  early 
gospel  preachers ;  but  we  can  only  leave  it  to  im- 
agination to  fill  out  the  picture.  A  space  of 
many  years  in  his  life  is  a  blank,  as  far  as  the 
book  of  Acts  is  concerned,  before  we  hear  of  him 
again  and  finally.  It  would  not  seem  improbable 
that  he  may  have  continued  in  evangelistic  work 
here  and  there  through  these  regions,  making 
longer  or  shorter  stops  at  different  places  as  cir- 
cumstances might  seem  to  require.  But  until  we 
hear  of  him  as  residing  at  Csesarea  and  entertain- 
ing Paul  for  some  days  in  his  own  home  twenty 
years  later,  on  the  occasion  of  the  apostle's  going 
to  Jerusalem  after  his  third  missionary  tour 
abroad,  the  records  of  it  are  entirely  silent. 
Then  it  is  said  of  him  that  he  had  four  daughters 
who  prophesied.  Such  an  interview  with  the 
great  apostle,  with  whose  broad  ecclesiastical 
views   and   missionary  zeal   he   was   in   full   sym- 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST  231 

pathy,  must  have  been  particularly  agreeable  and 
cheering,  as  also  later,  during  Paul's  protracted 
imprisonment  at  Caesarea,  when  they  were  no 
doubt  in  frequent  conference.  Very  likely  Philip 
here  met  with  Luke  also,  Paul's  companion,  to 
whom  he  may  have  communicated  many  facts  of 
his  own  early  career — facts  which  were  incor- 
porated in  the  book  of  Acts,  and  which  we  have 
been  considering. 

But  however  fruitful  Philip's  evangelistic  min- 
istry may  have  been  during  these  years,  the  main 
significance  of  his  life,  so  far  as  the  developing 
history  of  the  early  church  is  concerned,  no  doubt 
lay  in  the  signal  service  which  he  rendered  to  it 
through  his  successful  mission  to  the  detested 
Samaritans,  opening  the  gospel  door  to  them, 
and  in  the  bold  baptism  of  one  who  had  been 
forbidden  by  Jewish  law  to  become  a  member  of 
the  Jewish  church.  But  few,  relatively,  among 
the  Christian  leaders  of  that  time,  even  among  the 
apostles,  contributed  much  to  the  enlargement  of 
the  Jewish  views  of  the  gospel  and  its  privileges, 
but  Philip  was  one  of  the  few  whose  contributions 
and  influence  were  by  no  means  unimportant. 

Of  the  closing  period  of  Philip's  life  we  know 
nothing  certainly,  although  there  would  seem  to 
be  some  grounds  for  the  tradition  that  in  the  un- 
settled conditions  existing  in  Judea  about  A.  D. 
65,  from  the  breaking  out  of  the  great  Jewish 
war,  he,  like  many  other  Jewish  Christians,  prob- 
ably left  Palestine  and  found  a  home  elsewhere. 


Saa    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

As  to  whether  he  suffered  martyrdom,  or  died  a 
quiet  and  natural  death,  tradition  is  divided. 

The  life  and  experience  of  Philip,  as  in  the  case 
of  others  of  the  early  Christian  leaders,  are  full 
of  suggestion.  In  him,  for  example,  we  have  a 
notable  instance  of  the  good  which  a  consecrated 
layman  may  accomplish.  A  similar  possibility  of 
usefulness,  even  if  not  in  precisely  the  same 
sphere,  is  open  to  any  consecrated  layman  to-day. 
He  may  make  his  life  as  successful  as  that  of 
Philip,  if  he  will.  Another  thing  which  impresses 
us  in  the  narrative  is  his  instant  obedience, 
upon  all  occasions,  to  the  voice  of  the  Spirit,  and 
this  even  though  the  way  may  not  have  seemed 
clear  before  him  at  the  time.  It  was  enough  for 
him  to  know  that  he  was  bidden  to  go  in  a  cer- 
tain direction,  and  this  promptness  of  response 
was  the  secret  of  his  success.  As  he  went  for- 
ward, the  way  opened  before  him,  step  by  step, 
added  light  was  given  as  it  was  needed,  and  the 
work  which  was  in  waiting  for  him  was  made 
plain. 

But  especially  interesting  and  instructive  is  the 
relation  of  Philip  to  the  New  Testament  move- 
ment and  its  progress  in  those  early  times.  His 
broad-minded  disregard  of  the  national  and  re- 
ligious prejudices  of  the  Jewish  people,  as  illus- 
trated in  both  the  incidents  recorded  of  him  was, 
at  the  time,  a  real  contribution  to  the  progress  of 
the   cause.     The   time  had  not  yet  come   for  an 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST 

open  rupture  with  Judaism,  but  things  were 
working  that  way.  There  was  a  constant  intro- 
duction of  broader  ideas  among  Jewish  Christian 
people,  and  a  loosening  of  the  prejudices  in  which 
they  had  been  reared.  This,  in  due  time,  was 
bound  to  bring  about  the  inevitable  separation. 
Philip  is  to  be  thought  of  as  one  of  the  pioneers 
in  promoting  these  enlarging  conceptions,  and  in 
boldly  acting  in  accordance  with  them  as  oppor- 
tunity presented. 


CHAPTER  VI 

BARNABAS 

In  the  gradual  evolution  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment movement,  both  in  its  extension  over  the 
world  as  then  known  and  in  its  disentanglement 
from  Judaism,  Barnabas  had  a  by  no  means  un- 
important part.  If  he  did  not  possess  in  as  pro- 
nounced a  degree  the  bold  and  aggressive  quali- 
ties of  Paul,  he  was  still  independent  and 
courageous  and  was  recognized  as  a  wise,  safe 
counselor.  He  was  a  man  of  broad  sympathies, 
unprejudiced,  open-minded,  and  generally  level- 
headed in  his  judgments.  He  went  farther  than 
did  Stephen  or  Philip  in  the  liberality  of  his  views 
— rather  he  carried  the  ideas  and  the  spirit  oi 
these  men  to  their  legitimate  conclusion.  Instead 
of  withholding  the  gospel  from  the  Gentiles,  which 
the  more  conservative  Jewish  Christians  would 
have  done — until  at  least  they  had  first  become 
Jews  by  submitting  to  certain  prescribed  Jewish 
rites — he  was  glad  to  welcome  them  to  the  gospel 
fellowship  without  reference  to  these  rites.  It 
was  enough  for  him  that  the  divine  favor  mani- 
festly attended  their  reception  of  it.  More  than 
this,  he  was  ready  and  willing  to  join  heartily  in 
the  work  of  offering  the  gospel  to  them  upon  the 
^34 


BARNABAS  2S5 

terms  which  Jesus  had  originally  proclaimed. 
He  was,  in  fact,  the  first  prominent  leader  of  the 
church  to  settle  upon  this  as  a  definite  policy. 

The  first  mention  of  Barnabas  occurs  in  Acts 
IV,  36,  from  which  we  learn  that  his  original  name 
was  Joseph,  but  that  he  was  afterward  surnamed 
Barnabas,  meaning  "son  of  exhortation"  or  "con- 
solation." Nothing  is  known  in  regard  to  his 
conversion;  it  may  have  occurred  at  Pentecost. 
He  was  at  least  among  the  earliest  to  join  the  new 
community.  He  began  his  Christian  career  by 
a  willing  consecration  of  a  portion  if  not  all  of 
his  possessions.  Having  a  field  he  sold  it  and 
brought  the  money  which  he  received  for  it  and 
laid  it  at  the  apostles'  feet.  It  was  a  generous 
act,  indicative  of  his  character,  for  he  gave  of 
his  sympathies  on  all  occasions  as  freely  as  he  did 
of  his  means  on  this.  He  evidently  possessed  in 
high  degree  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  his 
brethren.  A  striking  proof  of  this  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  on  a  certain  occasion  his  en- 
dorsement of  Paul  secured  for  the  latter  a  cordial 
reception  by  the  disciples  who  before  had  been  in- 
clined to  turn  to  him  the  cold  shoulder. 

It  seems  that  after  PauPs  return  from  his  so- 
journ in  Arabia  and  his  unsuccessful  effort,  ow- 
ing to  the  hostility  of  the  Jews,  to  do  evangelistic 
work  in  Damascus,  he  determined  to  go  to  Jeru- 
salem. Here,  he  felt  assured,  he  would  receive  a 
hearty    welcome     from    the    Christian    believers. 


2m    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Furthermore,  it  would  be  a  satisfaction  to  him  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  the  very  place  where  he  had 
so  violently  opposed  it.  Upon  reaching  the  city 
he  found,  to  his  surprise,  that  the  disciples  were 
disinclined  to  receive  him.  Very  likely  they  had 
distrusted  the  reports  of  his  conversion  which 
had  reached  them,  and  so  feared  him  still.  At 
this  critical  juncture  Barnabas  appeared  upon 
the  scene  and  relieved  Paul  of  his  embarrassment. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  two  men  may  have 
known  each  other  before.  In  this  case,  Paul,  in 
his  dilemma,  may  have  sought  out  his  old  friend, 
told  him  his  story  and  satisfied  him  in  regard  to 
its  truth.  At  all  events,  Barnabas  took  him  by 
the  hand,  introduced  him  to  Peter  and  the  rest 
of  the  brethren  who  were  then  present  in  the 
city,  standing  sponsor  for  him  as  a  Christian  man. 
This  endorsement  was  sufficient  to  allay  all  ap- 
prehension, and  Peter  took  Paul  to  his  own  home 
and  entertained  him  during  his  stay  in  the  city. 
His  recognition  by  the  brethren  at  this  time  was 
due  to  the  discriminating  insight  and  confidence 
of  Barnabas,  as  it  was  afterward  due  to  him  that 
Paul  was  "discovered"  at  Tarsus  and  introduced 
to  the  large  and  waiting  field  at  Antioch,  where, 
indeed,  his  career  as  an  apostle  to  the  Gentiles 
may  be  said  to  have  begun. 

Among  the  refugees  from  Jerusalem,  after  the 
persecution  which  arose  against  the  disciples  upon 
the  death  of  Stephen  had  broken  out,  were  some 
who  went  as  far  north  as  Antioch,  and  beyond, 


BARNABAS  237 

bearing  witness  for  Christ  as  they  went.  Some  of 
these  seem  to  have  been  less  affected  by  Jewish 
prejudice  and  narrowness  than  others,  and 
preached  the  gospel  indiscriminately  to  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  and  upon  the  same  terms.  The  result 
was  that  many  believed,  the  same  marks  of  divine 
approval  being  manifested  in  case  of  the  converted 
Gentiles  as  in  the  case  of  converted  Jews.  As  re- 
ports of  the  work  reached  Jerusalem,  it  was  de- 
termined to  send  some  one  to  examine  into  it  and 
the  supposed  irregularities  in  connection  with  it, 
presumably  with  a  view  to  correcting  the  latter. 
For  this  delicate  and  difficult  mission,  Barnabas 
was  chosen.  This  speaks  well  both  for  the  high 
estimation  in  which  he  was  held  for  tact  and  pru- 
dence, and  for  the  church  that  a  man  as  broad- 
minded  as  he  should  be  made  their  representative 
on  so  delicate  a  mission.  On  reaching  Antioch,- 
Barnabas  at  once  perceived  the  fruits  of  the  gos- 
pel in  the  city.  A  multitude  of  Gentiles  as  well 
as  of  Jews  had  turned  to  the  Lord,  and  all  were 
living  in  harmony  and  in  complete  acquiescence 
with  what  seemed  to  be  the  will  of  God.  He  could 
not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  genuineness  of 
the  work,  to  rejoice  in  it,  and  to  identify  himself 
with  it.  At  length  it  became  evident  that  assist- 
ance would  be  needed.  As  Barnabas  pondered 
the  subject,  the  man  for  the  place  and  the  hour 
occurred  to  him.  He  remembered  Paul,  for 
whose  abilities  and  spirit  he  had  come  to  feel  a 
profound     respect.     More     than     this,     he     was 


238    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

broad-minded  like  himself.  By  this  time  he  had 
had  no  little  experience,  and  here  in  Antioch 
would  be  an  open  door  for  the  exercise  of  all  his 
gifts.  Under  the  direction  of  the  Spirit,  there- 
fore, and  without  waiting  to  confer  with  the 
brethren  at  Jerusalem,  Barnabas  set  out  for  Tar- 
sus, to  which  place  Paul  had  gone  some  years  be- 
fore, to  see  if  he  could  not  find  him  and  persuade 
him  to  return  with  him.  He  was  successful  in 
his  quest.  Paul  was  found ;  the  situation  and  the 
need  at  Antioch  were  presented  to  him.  He 
recognized  the  call  as  providential  and  prepared 
at  once  to  return  with  Barnabas. 

And  here,  aided  by  the  zeal  and  wisdom  of  these 
two  men,  the  work  went  quietly  but  successfully 
forward  for  a  whole  year — Barnabas  calm,  con- 
ciliatory, tactful;  Paul  strong,  fervent,  and  of 
marked  ability  as  a  preacher.  A  simple  incident 
in  connection  with  the  visit  of  brethren  from  Je- 
rusalem is  of  interest — the  prediction  by  Agabus 
of  a  general  famine,  a  prediction  which  was  soon 
fulfilled.  This  led  the  Antioch  Christians,  with 
quickened  sympathies  for  their  brethren  in  Judea, 
to  resolve  to  make  a  liberal  contribution  to  their 
assistance.  This  contribution  was  entrusted  to 
Barnabas  and  Paul  to  convey  to  the  officers  of 
the  church  at  Jerusalem  for  such  distribution  as 
might  seem  to  them  advisable.  The  manifesta- 
tion of  this  kindly  spirit  on  the  part  of  the  Gen- 
tile Christians  at  Antioch  toward  their  Jewish 
brethren  at  Jerusalem  must  have  done  much  to 


BARNABAS  239 

promote   confidence   and   to   strengthen  the  bond 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  Christian  church. 

But  now  at  length  another  question  arises. 
The  fact  that  the  gospel  was  intended  for  both 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  upon  the  same  terms,  seems  to 
have  been  quietly  accepted  at  Antioch,  but  ought 
not  steps  to  be  taken  to  give  it  to  the  great  mass 
of  heathen,  or  Gentiles,  in  the  regions  beyond? 
It  was  very  likely  in  connection  with  or  as  a  re- 
sult of  such  questioning  as  this  that  the  incident 
of  Acts  XIII,  1-3  occurred,  in  which  Barnabas  and 
Paul  were  designated  by  the  Spirit  and  formally 
set  apart  by  the  church  to  carry  the  gospel  to 
them.  That  first  missionary  journey  was  full  of 
hardship  and  adventure.  First  visiting  Cyprus, 
the  two  men  crossed  to  the  mainland  of  Asia 
Minor  and  went  as  far  northward  as  Antioch  iir 
Pisidia,  thence  eastward  to  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe  in  succession.  If  persecuted  in  one  place, 
they  went  on  to  another.  At  Lystra  a  strange 
incident  occurred.  The  natives  regarded  the  mis- 
sionaries as  heathen  gods — Jupiter  and  Mercury 
— come  to  earth  in  human  form.  Barnabas  was 
taken  for  the  former,  perhaps  because  he  was 
large  and  impressive  in  appearance,  and  Paul  for 
the  latter,  very  likely  because  he  was  the  smaller 
and  the  orator  of  the  two. 

One  feature  of  this  journey  seems  to  have  been 
that  although  Barnabas  was  the  leader  at  the 
outset,   this   leadership   evidently  passed   over  to 


^40    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Paul  shortly  afterward,  perhaps  naturally.  Paul 
may  soon  have  shown  a  special  fitness  for  taking 
the  lead  in  such  an  enterprise  as  that  in  which 
they  were  engaged.  If  so,  it  only  confirms  the 
high  opinion  we  have  already  had  reason  to  en- 
tertain of  the  sweet  and  humble  spirit  of  Barna- 
bas, that  he  should  have  acquiesced  in  it  so  grace- 
fully, for  it  seems  to  have  made  no  difference 
whatever  in  the  close  and  sympathetic  relations 
between  the  two  men. 

As  a  result  of  this  missionary  tour,  a  number  of 
important  churches  were  founded  at  strategic 
points.  Undiscouraged  by  obstacles,  these  two 
men  had  persevered  in  their  undertakings — worthy 
companions  and  equally  heroic. 

We  next  read  of  Barnabas  in  connection  with 
the  Conference  which  was  held,  not  long  after 
their  return  to  Antioch,  at  Jerusalem,  over  the 
question  which  they  had  hitherto  felt  it  wise  to 
ignore.  This  question  had  recently  been  intro- 
duced into  the  Antioch  church  by  self-appointed 
emissaries  from  the  more  conservative  Jewish 
Christians  at  the  Holy  City,  who  insisted  that 
circumcision  was  necessary  to  salvation.  The 
controversy  which  was  thus  precipitated  so 
threatened  the  very  life  of  the  church  that  it  was 
determined  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  apostles  and 
elders  of  the  mother  church  at  Jerusalem.  Paul 
and  Barnabas  went  up  to  the  Conference  as  the 
chief  representatives  of  the  Antioch  church. 

Without  going  into  details  of  the  Conference — 


BARNABAS  241 

which  will  be  more  fully  considered  in  the  next 
chapter — suffice  it  to  say  that  the  broader  view 
as  advocated  and  practiced  by  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas, prevailed,  and  the  edict  went  forth  that 
henceforth  the  Gentiles  should  not  be  required  to 
submit  to  Jewish  rites,  but  might  be  received  to 
Christian  fellowship  directly  upon  the  fulfillment 
of  the  conditions — repentance  and  faith — ^which 
Christ  himself  had  laid  down.  Barnabas  and  Paul 
had  stood  firmly  for  Christian  liberty,  and  had 
succeeded.  The  former  had  been  a  leader  in  this 
advance  movement  whose  influence  was  second  only 
to  that  of  the  apostle  himself. 

Some  time  after  this  Paul  proposed  to  his  for- 
mer comrade  that  they  retraverse  the  old  ground 
and  see  how  the  brethren  were  getting  on  in  those 
cities  where  before  they  had  preached  the  gospel.- 
Barnabas  readily  acceded  to  the  proposal,  but 
suggested  that  they  take  John  Mark,  his  cousin, 
with  them.  He  had  accompanied  them  before  as 
far  as  Perga,  when,  for  some  reason,  he  turned 
about  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  was  un- 
willing to  take  him  again.  If,  as  is  supposed, 
Mark  had  become  fearful  and  dismayed  by  the 
hardships  and  dangers  of  the  region  through 
which  they  were  to  pass,  what  would  hinder  him 
from  deserting  and  thus  disappointing  them 
again.?  Paul  refused  a  second  time  to  run  such  a 
risk.  Barnabas,  however,  was  firm  in  his  insist- 
ence.    Mark     may     have     repented     his     former 


M2    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

course,  and  his  relative  would  give  him  another 
chance.  The  outcome  was  a  serious  contention 
between  these  two  leaders  and  friends — as  bitter 
as  it  was  deplorable — and  the  only  hope  of  peace 
lay  in  their  separation.  So  they  parted — to  for- 
give and  honor  and  love  each  other  later,  as  is 
evident  from  Paul's  epistles,  but  never  again  to 
work  together  in  the  great  enterprise  which  was 
dear  to  the  hearts  of  both.  As  to  which  of  the 
two  was  the  more  to  blame,  it  may  not  be  possible 
to  determine.  Barnabas  may  have  erred  on  the 
side  of  leniency  toward  the  fault  of  a  relative — 
Paul,  in  view  of  the  great  interests  at  stake,  no 
doubt  felt  justified  in  his  attitude.  The  wrong 
was  not  in  their  differing  judgments,  which  may 
have  been  honest,  but  in  the  persistency,  the  un- 
yieldingness of  each,  so  that  agreement  became  im- 
possible and  separation  necessary.  But  they  were 
both  too  earnest  and  too  zealous  in  the  work  to 
give  it  up.  Paul  chose  Silas  as  his  companion 
and  went  on  his  way  through  Asia  Minor,  thence 
into  Macedonia  and  Greece,  while  Barnabas,  with 
Mark,  went  over  his  native  island  of  Cyprus. 
The  controversy  had  been  overruled  for  good,  for 
now  there  were  two  missionary  undertakings  in- 
stead of  one. 

And  here  the  Scripture  notices  of  Barnabas 
cease.  It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  his  la- 
bors ended  with  this  visit  to  Cyprus,  or  indeed  for 
many  years  thereafter,  but  he  is  no  longer  iden- 
tified, as  in  his  former  prominent  way,  with  the 


BARNABAS  MS 

great  missionary  movements  of  the  time,  or  with 
the  burning  questions  which  continued  to  disturb 
the  churches  for  some  years  to  come.  The  writer 
of  the  book  of  Acts  seems  to  note  only  those  per- 
sons and  events  that  were  brought  in  close  connec- 
tion with  the  movement  which  sought  to  give  the 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  When  that  work  was  ac- 
complished, nothing  more  was  said  about  them. 


Our  review  of  Barnabas  has  brought  to  light 
two  significant  things: — first,  a  marvelously  well- 
rounded  character.  He  was  sweet-spirited,  gen- 
erous-hearted, broad-minded,  open  to  the  truth, 
free  from  prejudice,  ready  to  recognize  and  to 
welcome  new  light  or  new  truth  and  to  fall  in  with 
and  appropriate  it.  There  would  seem  to  be  some 
ground  for  the  criticism  of  Renan  that  Christian- 
ity has  done  Barnabas  an  injustice  in  not  placing 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  its  founders.  He  was 
really  a  great  man,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
breadth  of  his  views,  which  were  far  in  advance  of 
those  of  the  mass  of  his  own  countrymen,  his  clear 
insight  into  men  and  events,  and  his  effectiveness 
in  the  work  along  side  of  the  greatest  apostle.  If 
on  one  or  two  occasions  he  betrayed  weakness,  it  is 
only  what  all  great  men,  as  well  as  others,  have 
also  done  at  times — even  Paul  and  Peter.  But 
that  he  was  true  to  the  core  to  his  convictions  as 
to  the  gospel  and  its  universal  character,  is  made 
abundantly  manifest  by  the  zeal  with  which  he 


344    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

promulgated  his  views,  and  his  earnestness  in  the 
work  of  giving  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  He 
stood  side  by  side  with  Paul  in  all  these  things, 
and  to  the  end  Paul  honored  and  loved  him  as  a 
friend  and  brother,  notwithstanding  their  unfor- 
tunate difference  on  one  occasion.  The  apostle 
owed  much  to  him  personally,  and  perhaps  no  one 
was  nearer  to  him  in  all  his  career  than  Barnabas 
had  been. 

At  the  very  first  notice  which  we  have  of  him, 
Barnabas  appears  as  one  generously  consecrating 
his  possessions  to  the  cause  of  Christ.  He  early 
became  highly  esteemed  and  a  brother  beloved 
among  the  brethren  at  Jerusalem  for  pure  worth 
of  character,  for  he  was  a  "good  man,"  we  read, 
"and  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  He  was  prompt 
to  recognize  the  sincerity  of  Paul  as  a  Christian 
man  after  his  return  from  Damascus  to  Jerusa- 
lem, when  others  were  suspicious,  and  to  endorse 
him  to  the  brethren.  Without  hesitation  he  recog- 
nized the  genuineness  of  the  work  among  the  Gen- 
tiles at  Antioch.  In  the  providence  of  God  he 
was  the  one  to  seek  out  Paul  in  his  obscurity, 
after  he  had  left  Jerusalem  for  Tarsus,  and  to 
introduce  him  to  the  waiting  field  at  Antioch,  and 
so  to  his  great  career  as  an  apostle.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  men  definitely  chosen  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  for  the  important  and  responsible  work  of 
giving  the  gospel  to  the  heathen.  He  shared 
with  Paul  the  hardships  and  trials  of  that  eventful 
first  missionary  journey,  and  he  stood  with  him 


BARNABAS  24*5 

for  his  convictions  as  opposed  to  burdening  the 
Gentiles  with  Jewish  customs  and  rites  before  they 
could  be  recognized  as  Christian  disciples.  And 
even  after  the  sad  difference  between  him  and 
Paul,  he  still  persevered  in  his  missionary  zeal, 
in  which  work  he  may  have  continued,  for  aught 
we  know  to  the  contrary,  for  many  years,  or  as 
long  as  he  lived.  Noble,  broad-minded,  sympa- 
thetic, consecrated,  practical,  yet  unselfish  and 
humble,  and  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit — Barnabas 
was  worthy  to  be  classed  among  the  early  found- 
ers and  leaders  of  the  Christian  church. 

Again,  Barnabas  made  a  distinct  contribu- 
tion to  the  progress  of  the  New  Testament  move- 
ment in  its  broader  aspects  and  its  wider  relations, 
second  only  to  that  made  by  Paul  himself.  The 
direct  evangelizing  work  which  he  did  at  Antioch, 
then  and  on  that  first  missionary  journey,  and  his 
later  work,  of  which  we  have  no  record  save  that 
he  and  Mark  sailed  away  to  Cyprus,  was  not  small. 
Who,  so  far  as  we  can  determine,  aside  from  Paul, 
did  more  among  the  Gentiles  than  he,  or  as  much.? 
But  especially  in  regard  to  that  burning  question 
of  the  time,  as  it  became,  as  between  Jews  and 
Gentiles  and  the  conditions  of  salvation  for  the 
latter,  his  views  were  clear,  his  position  sound, 
his  influence  positive  and  pronounced.  Paul  be- 
came the  main  spokesman  in  the  controversy,  but 
Barnabas  stood  loyally  by  his  colleague,  between 
whom  and  himself  there  were  doubtless  many  dis- 
cussions of  the  whole  question  in  all  its  bearings. 


S46    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

The  victory,  in  its  first  stage,  i.  e.,  with  the  apos- 
tles and  elders  at  Jerusalem,  was  finally  won,  an3 
these  two  champions,  seemingly,  shared  alike  in 
the  honor  of  it.  The  later  and  final  stage  of  the 
struggle,  among  the  churches  themselves,  was 
fought  out  by  Paul  alone.  Had  it  not  been  for 
the  contention  over  John  Mark  which  sprang  up 
between  him  and  Barnabas  and  the  separation 
following,  they  would  doubtless  have  stood  side 
by  side  in  that  struggle  too,  and  Paul's  heavy  bur- 
den in  the  care  of  all  the  churches  would  have  been 
materially  lightened. 

We  do  well  to  bring  Barnabas  out  of  the  ob- 
scure place  into  which  he  seems  to  have  fallen,  to 
the  honor  which  he  deserves  for  what  he  was  in 
himself  and  for  what  he  did — not  least  of  all  that 
at  a  critical  time  he  endorsed  Paul  to  the  breth- 
ren, and  later  "discovered"  him  in  his  obscurity 
and  introduced  him  to  his  life  work  as  the  apostle 
to  the  Gentiles. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PAUL 

We  have  seen  what  various  leaders  of  the  New 
Testament  movement,  or  Christianity,  contrib- 
uted to  its  progress,  both  in  the  way  of  extend- 
ing its  bounds,  and  toward  its  emancipation  from 
the  Judaism  in  the  midst  of  which  it  had  its  ori- 
gin, and  with  which  for  a  considerable  period  it 
seems  to  have  been  identified.  It  now  remains  to 
study  the  life  and  work  of  the  one  who  made  the 
largest  and  crowning  contribution  of  all  to  the 
movement  in  both  these  respects. 

Saul  of  Tarsus,  afterwards  called  Paul,  seepfis 
to  have  been  the  providential  man  for  the  period 
during  which  his  life  work  was  accomplished. 
There  was  need  at  this  particular  juncture  of  one 
of  just  such  a  broad  and  liberal  spirit  as  he  pos- 
sessed and  just  such  training  as  he  had  received, 
to  do  for  Christianity  what  no  one  else  had  yet 
done  or  could  do,  and  for  which  no  one  in  the 
original  apostolic  company  seemed  to  be  qualified. 
He  became  its  greatest  worker,  its  most  enterpris- 
ing missionary,  its  profoundest  thinker,  its  most 
powerful  champion,  its  great  liberator  from  Ju- 
daism. In  him  the  power  of  the  gospel  to  over- 
come prejudice  and  entirely  to  make  one  over  was 
247 


248    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

put  to  the  test  under  the  most  trying  conditions, 
and  it  was  found  entirely  adequate  to  meet  it. 
He  seems  to  have  embodied  in  himself  the  entire 
movement  for  the  time  being,  and  to  have  wrought 
out  many  of  its  most  difficult  problems  in  his  own 
experience.  The  success  with  which  he  did  this 
has  been  the  marvel  of  the  generations  since. 

A  glance  only,  over  the  wide  field  of  Paul's  life, 
especially  in  view  of  frequent  references  to  it  al- 
ready, will  be  necessary. 


Our  first  introduction  to  Paul  does  not  present 
him  to  us  in  the  most  favorable  light.  It  is  as  a 
participant  in  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen.  Nev- 
ertheless, there  were  great  energies  in  him  which, 
later,  under  the  influence  of  the  very  gospel  which 
at  this  time  and  afterward  he  was  endeavoring  to 
stamp  out,  would  be  turned  into  right  channels 
and  be  devoted  to  highest  ends. 

His  early  home  was  at  Tarsus,  "no  mean  city," 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cilicia  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  which,  however,  he  was  brought  up  by 
his  Jewish  parents  after  the  "straitest  sect"  of 
the  Jewish  faith.  Whether  he  studied  at  all  in 
the  university  for  which  Tarsus  was  famous  and 
which  made  it  one  of  the  chief  educational  centers 
of  the  world  at  that  time,  we  have  little  means  of 
knowing.  In  any  event  he  could  hardly  have 
failed  to  imbibe  something  of  the  classic  spirit  of 
the  place,  and  to  receive  lasting  impressions  from 


PAUL  249 

its  life  and  activity,  all  calculated  to  be  helpful 
in  his  preparation  for  his  distinguished  future 
career. 

But  the  great  center  for  Jewish  education  was 
Jerusalem,  whither,  when  quite  a  young  boy,  Paul 
was  sent  by  his  parents  with  a  view  to  his  being 
trained  to  be  a  rabbi.  Here  he  studied  at  the  feet 
of  Gamaliel,  who  was  one  of  the  most  famous  in- 
structors of  his  time,  and  where  he  manifested 
exceptional  zeal  for  the  Pharisaism  under  which 
he  had  been  reared.  When  at  length  the  new 
Christian  sect  in  Jerusalem  began  to  be  aggres- 
sive, and  Stephen's  liberal  utterances  had  awakened 
the  bitter  hostility  of  the  Jewish  leaders,  the 
young  Saul  began  to  be  aroused.  Not  only  did 
he  take  part  in  the  mob-like  movement  which  re- 
sulted in  Stephen's  martyrdom,  he  was  ready  to 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  an  authorized  attempt 
to  stamp  out  the  hated  Christian  sect  altogether. 

After  he  had  wrought  no  end  of  havoc  among 
the  Christians  in  and  about  Jerusalem,  arresting 
and  thrusting  many  into  prison,  even  in  some 
cases  giving  his  vote  for  their  death,  as  he  him- 
self acknowledges,  he  sought  to  extend  his  perse- 
cuting work  to  distant  cities.  Without  difficulty 
he  gained  permission  from  the  Jewish  authorities 
to  do  this,  and  Damascus  was  his  first  objective 
point.  It  is  not  improbable  that  as  he  journeyed 
along,  his  thoughts  were  busy  and  his  conscience 
active.  The  question  may  have  continued  to 
thrust   itself  before   his   mind   as   to   whether   he 


250    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

could  be  justified  in  the  course  he  was  pursuing, 
whether  his  zeal  for  the  religion  of  his  fathers 
was  not  being  carried  altogether  too  far,  whether 
it  might  not  be  possible,  after  all,  that  the  suffer- 
ing Christians  were  in  the  right.  At  all  events, 
as  he  neared  Damascus,  still  "breathing  out 
threatenings  and  slaughter"  against  the  Chris- 
tians, he  was  suddenly  halted  in  his  course,  a 
great  light  from  heaven  shone  about  him,  and, 
overpowered  by  the  experience,  he  fell  to  the 
ground  blind  and  speechless.  When  he  recovered 
himself,  he  was  a  changed  man.  He  declares  that 
in  the  midst  of  the  dazzling  light  which  had  envel- 
oped him,  the  glorified  Lord  himself  appeared 
and  summoned  him  to  the  life  mission  of  declaring 
the  gospel,  which  had  so  stirred  his  fury  and 
whose  adherents  he  was  persecuting,  to  the  distant 
Gentiles.  At  that  moment,  he  saw  and  believed, 
responded  to  the  call,  and  was  ready  to  join  his 
fortune  with  the  very  sect  he  had  been  seeking  to 
destroy,  and  become  the  champion  of  the  very 
Christ  whose  Messiahship  he  had  hitherto  refused 
to  recognize.  Everything  looked  different  to  him 
now,  old  things  had  passed  away,  all  things  had 
become  new.  Now  he  saw  things  as  they  were,  as, 
when  the  scales  of  prejudice  were  blinding  his 
vision,  he  could  not. 

After  so  complete  a  revolution  inwardly  and  in 
his  plans  and  prospects  outwardly,  it  was  but 
natural  that  he  should  feel  the  need  of  retirement 
for  a  season  for  thought  and  study  and  prayer. 


PAUL  251 

All  that  he  had  previously  gained  in  the  way  of 
education  and  training  would  now  be  utilized  in 
the  work  which  was  unexpectedly  opening  before 
him,  but  in  view  of  the  greatness  and  importance 
of  it  and  the  mighty  influence  it  was  to  exert, 
there  was  need  of  still  further  preparation. 
This,  by  his  retirement  into  Arabia  for  a  season, 
and  by  his  years  of  experience  afterward  in 
preaching  the  gospel  to  his  own  countrymen  in 
the  regions  of  Tarsus,  he  was  providentially  to  re- 
ceive. 

After  his  return  from  Arabia — his  ideas  of  the 
nature  and  scope  of  the  gospel  and  its  relations 
to  the  old  Mosaic  system  greatly  enlarged  and 
clarified — he  sought  to  preach  the  new  faith  in 
Damascus,  but  apparently  without  much  success. 
His  zeal  was  adequate  and  his  understanding  of 
the  gospel  was  ample,  but  the  Jews  there  were  ,un- 
willing  to  receive  his  testimony,  and  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  to  kill  him.  Escaping,  he  went  to 
Jerusalem  where  he  sought  to  join  himself  with 
the  disciples,  wishing  especially  to  see  and  confer 
with  Peter  who  was  their  recognized  leader.  But 
they  were  suspicious  of  him  and  were  inclined  to 
turn  the  cold  shoulder.  Barnabas,  however,  be- 
coming interested  in  his  case  and  being  satisfied 
as  to  the  genuineness  of  his  conversion,  intro- 
duced him  to  the  disciples  and  elders  with  his  per- 
sonal endorsement,  after  which  they  gladly  re- 
ceived him,  and  Peter  took  him  to  his  home  for  the 
two  weeks  of  his  stay  in  the  city.     During  this 


^52    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

time  Paul  endeavored  to  perform  the  same  minis- 
try in  Jerusalem  which  he  had  attempted  at  Da- 
mascus, and  with  a  similar  result.  The  prejudice 
of  the  Jews  was  so  strong,  and  the  hostility  of 
their  leaders,  with  whom,  before,  he  had  been 
closely  associated  in  the  work  of  persecuting 
Christians,  was  so  great,  that  it  was  found  use- 
less for  him  to  continue.  As  it  was,  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  among  the  Jews  to  slay  him.  So, 
probably  by  the  advice  of  the  brethren,  and  after 
a  distinct  intimation  that  such  was  the  Lord's 
will,  he  resolved,  reluctantly,  to  leave.  He  was 
conducted  by  his  new  friends  as  far  as  Caesarea, 
from  which  point  he  set  sail  for  his  native  Cilicia. 
Here,  so  far  as  the  records  are  concerned,  he 
remained  in  obscurity  for  a  number  of  years, 
perhaps  seven  or  eight. 

But  although  we  have  no  account  of  Paul 
during  this  period,  we  can  hardly  think  of  him 
otherwise  than  as  active  in  his  chosen  work, 
preaching  the  gospel  as  he  had  opportunity. 
The  existence  of  churches  in  Syria  and  Cilicia, 
which  Paul  visited  on  his  second  missionary 
journey,  may  be  evidence  of  Paul's  activity  there 
before  going  to  Antioch.  These  years  must  have 
done  great  things  for  him,  giving  him  still 
further  preparation,  in  experience  and  in  broad- 
ening of  views,  for  the  career  which  lay  before 
him.  Whether  he  had  fully  grasped  the  thought 
before  or  not,  it  must  have  become  clear  to  him 
now,  that  Christianity  was  intended  to  be  entirely 


^      PAUL  ^53 

distinct  from  Judaism,  that  the  mission  of  the 
latter  had  been  simply  preparatory  to  it.  At 
any  rate,  when  occasion  arose  at  length,  there 
was  no  hesitancy  on  his  part  in  declaring  this 
conviction.  When,  finally,  the  call  came  to  him 
as  related  in  the  preceding  chapter,  to  join  with 
Barnabas  in  prosecuting  the  work  which  had  been 
so  auspiciously  begun  at  Antioch,  he  was  fully 
equipped  for  it.  His  mind  was  ripe,  clear  in  its 
grasp  of  truth,  while  his  experience  had  fitted  him 
to  deal  with  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men. 

For  some  time  previous  to  this  there  had  been 
indications  of  a  broadening  movement  with 
respect  to  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  gospel. 
It  had  been  assumed  that  it  was  intended  only 
for  Jews,  or  such  Gentiles  as  irould  first  become 
Jews  by  accepting  certain  Jewish  rites,  which, 
however,  were  of  no  significance  to  them.  3ut 
now  Stephen  had  boldly  declared  that  the  Mosaic 
law  was  but  preparatory  and  temporary,  in- 
tended to  give  place  at  length  to  the  more  com- 
plete revelation  of  God  in  Christ  and  his  gospel, 
which  was  not  alone  for  Jews  but  for  all.  Philip 
had  been  preaching  to  the  Samaritans  with  suc- 
cess, although  they,  if  not  strictly  Gentiles,  were 
not  regarded  as  Jews.  Peter  and  John  had 
approved  his  work,  and  even  assisted  in  it.  Peter 
had  had  his  vision  at  Joppa,  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  its  lesson  that  God  is  no  respecter  of 
persons,  had,  without  hesitation,  accepted  an 
invitation    to   preach   the   gospel   to   the   Gentile 


^54    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Cornelius  and  his  family  at  Cassarea,  and  the 
blessing  of  God  had  attended.  Moreover,  a 
Christian  church  had  been  formed  at  Antioch,  in 
which  Gentiles  were  received  on  the  same  footing 
with  Jews,  and  Barnabas,  who  had  been  sent  from 
Jerusalem  to  investigate,  had  been  satisfied  with 
the  situation  and  had  joined  in  the  work.  It  was 
the  rapid  development  of  the  work  here  in  the 
peculiar  conditions  which  existed,  which  had  led 
him,  in  seeking  for  a  suitable  man  to  assist  in 
carrying  it  on,  to  think  of  and  to  seek  out  his  old 
acquaintance  and  friend  at  Tarsus. 

The  record  of  the  work  of  Barnabas  and  Paul 
here  in  Antioch  is  very  brief.  In  a  single  verse 
it  is  stated  that  for  an  entire  year  it  went  for- 
ward prosperously  and  harmoniously,  and  with 
constant  accessions  to  the  membership  of  the 
church,  which  was  already  beginning  to  rival 
that  at  Jerusalem  in  importance.  Its  notable 
feature  was  its  welcome  to  Gentiles  without  ques- 
tion, as  that  at  Jerusalem  was  its  work  among 
the  Jews.  Paul's  long  and  varied  training  was 
finding  full  scope,  and  he  was  being  prepared,  as 
was  Barnabas  also,  for  the  next  great  step  in  the 
progress  of  the  new  movement. 

And  that  step  was  no  less  than  a  mission,  under 
the  auspices  of  this  church,  to  the  Gentiles  of  the 
countries  about.  As  the  work  was  going  on  at 
Antioch  and  Gentiles  were  gladly  embracing  the 
gospel,  the  question  of  giving  it  to  Gentiles  at  a 
distance   was   naturally  much  in   the   minds   and 


PAUL  255 

hearts  of  the  leaders.  This  finally  became  a 
definite  purpose,  for  as  they  were  ministering  and 
praying,  the  Holy  Spirit  made  it  plain  that  the 
plan  was  divinely  sanctioned,  and  Barnabas  and 
Paul  were  designated  as  the  ones  to  undertake  it. 
The  latter  had  previously  been  called  by  the  Lord 
himself  directly,  to  be  an  apostle  to  the  Gentiles, 
the  former  to  an  analogous  work  by  the  provi- 
dence of  God.  Now  they  were  both  formally  set 
apart  to  the  work,  and  so  began  the  first  great 
foreign  missionary  undertaking  of  which  we  have 
record. 

The  story  of  that  first  missionary  journey, 
with  its  varied  experiences,  its  hardships,  its 
dangers,  its  successes,  is  briefly  told.  It  is 
covered  by  two  chapters  in  the  book  of  Acts,  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  Churches  were 
formed  at  a  number  of  strategic  points  in  ,the 
interior  of  Asia  Minor,  in  such  places  as  Antioch 
in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe.  The 
practice  of  the  missionaries  was  to  preach  first  to 
the  Jews  in  their  own  synagogues.  If  these  re- 
fused to  receive  the  gospel  message,  as  was  fre- 
quently the  case,  they  turned  to  the  Gentiles, 
who,  as  a  rule,  accepted  it  gladly.  Nor  did  they 
find  reason  to  question  the  propriety  of  offering 
the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  without  the  imposition 
of  unusual  or  purely  Jewish  conditions,  any 
more  than  at  Antioch,  while  the  marks  of  divine 
approval  attended  their  reception  of  it  just  as 
truly  as  at  the  latter  place.     Thus  their  convic- 


256   THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

tion  that  the  gospel  was  intended  for  Gentiles  as 
well  as  for  Jews — and  they  were  both  entirely 
agreed  in  this — was  not  only  confirmed,  but 
burned  into  their  minds  as  the  outgrowth  of  their 
experience.  When  at  length  they  returned  to 
Antioch,  from  which  they  had  set  out,  they  re- 
ported to  the  church  the  things  which  had 
transpired  during  their  journey,  and  one  and  all 
rejoiced  at  the  successful  issue  of  their  mission, 
especially  in  the  fact  that  the  door  of  faith  had 
been  opened  to  the  Gentiles. 

II 

But  the  peace  and  harmony  of  the  Antioch 
church,  which  had  thus  far  escaped  serious  dis- 
sension, were  about  to  be  disturbed.  Hitherto 
there  had  been  mutual  forbearance  between  the 
Jew  and  Gentile  Christians.  They  had  respected 
each  other  as  Christian  brethren,  had  associated 
freely,  and  divisive  questions  in  regard  to  the 
Jewish  law  and  its  relation  to  the  Christian 
faith  had  been  either  quietly  ignored,  or,  by 
common  consent,  held  in  abeyance.  But  now  a 
controversy  was  started,  through  no  fault  of  the 
Antioch  Christians,  by  which  the  church  was 
nearly  rent  in  twain. 

It  seems  that  certain  of  the  more  strict  and 
conservative  members  of  the  Jerusalem  church — 
evidently  alarmed  at  the  liberal  tendencies  and 
practices  of  the  Antiochian  Christians  and  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  church — had  come  down  to 


PAUL  257 

do  what  they  could  to  stem  the  tide  and  bring  the 
church  back  to  the  more  Jewish  and  orthodox 
view  on  the  questions  involved.  They  came  en- 
tirely upon  their  own  responsibility,  although 
they  were  evidently  not  unwilling  to  have  it 
appear  that  they  came  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Jerusalem  leaders.  At  once  they  began  to 
declare  that  except  a  man  be  circumcised  he  could 
not  be  saved.  In  their  view  the  Jewish  religion 
was  unquestionably  of  divine  origin,  and  circum- 
cision was  a  badge  of  the  covenant  dating  back 
even  to  Abraham's  time.  This  being  so,  how 
could  the  rite  be  regarded  as  unessential.''  What 
authority  had  anyone  to  abolish  or  to  ignore 
it.?  The  result  was  that  not  a  few  of  the  Chris- 
tians at  Antioch  were  filled  with  apprehension 
lest  they  might  have  omitted  something  upon 
which  the  welfare  of  their  souls  depended.  Their 
minds  became  confused,  and  some  even  went  so 
far  as  to  fall  in  with  this  strict  Jewish  view, 
although  it  was  directly  contrary  to  the  teaching 
of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  not  unnaturally  took 
their  stand  in  opposition  to  it.  But  so  disquiet- 
ing had  been  the  influence  of  these  Judaizing 
emissaries  that  the  need  of  some  more  authorita- 
tive pronouncement  upon  the  subject  was  recog- 
nized by  the  church,  and  it  was  determined  to 
refer  the  whole  matter  to  the  apostles  and  elders 
at  Jerusalem  for  their  decision.  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  with  certain  others,  were  appointed  to 
represent  the  church  at  the  proposed  conference. 


mS    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

There  was  probably  little  doubt  in  their  own 
minds  as  to  what  the  decision  would  be,  for  the 
apostles  and  brethren,  after  learning  of  what 
had  already  been  achieved  among  the  Gentiles, 
and  how  the  blessing  of  God  had  attended  their 
reception  of  the  gospel  without  reference  to  the 
Jewish  law  and  its  requirements,  could  hardly 
take  a  position  in  opposition  to  what  had  mani- 
festly been  the  divine  leading.  Furthermore,  it 
is  not  impossible  that  there  may  already  have 
been  some  understanding  between  Paul  and  the 
leaders  at  Jerusalem  on  the  subject. 

The  question  as  to  the  relation  of  circumcision 
to  salvation,  although  so  simple  and  clear  to  us 
that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a  controversy 
over  it  could  ever  have  arisen,  was  yet  for  a  long 
time  a  burning  one  in  those  early  times  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  dissension  which  was  occasioned  by 
it  was  a  bitter  one.  Paul,  who  had  thought  the 
question  through  before  he  entered  actively  upon 
his  apostolic  mission,  was  the  leading  champion 
for  the  view  that  the  rite  of  circumcision  had 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  salvation;  that  it 
was  a  question  with  which  the  Gentiles  had  no 
concern — least  of  all  ought  their  recognition  as 
Christian  disciples  to  be  made  to  hinge  on  their 
acceptance  of  that  rite.  To  his  mind,  circumci- 
sion or  uncircumcision  was  nothing  in  itself.  The 
entire  Mosaic  system,  for  which  the  rite  stood,  was 
but   preparatory   to   Christianity,   which,  having 


PAUL  259 

now  been  given  to  the  world,  that  system  had 
thereby  become  obsolete,  and  was  to  be  set  aside. 
There  might  be  no  serious  objection  to  Jews  con- 
tinuing the  observance  of  rites  which  meant  much 
to  them  and  under  which  they  had  been  trained, 
but  it  was  another  thing  to  impose  them  upon 
Gentiles,  to  whom  they  meant  nothing,  as  a  con- 
dition of  salvation  and  Christian  fellowship. 
Not  only  would  no  possible  good  come  from  it, 
but  infinite  harm  rather.  To  impose  it  upon  the 
Gentiles  would  not  only  be  burdensome  in  the 
extreme,  and  embarrass  and  hinder  many  from 
accepting  the  gospel,  it  would  be  an  injustice  and 
a  wrong,  to  say  nothing  of  its  being  an  unwar- 
rantable interference  with  their  Christian  liberty. 
Christ  had  laid  down  no  such  conditions  of  sal- 
vation. Accordingly,  when  it  was  proposed  to 
insist  upon  these  burdensome  conditions,  Paul 
threw  himself  into  the  controversy  with  all  his 
strength,  nor  did  he  cease  to  struggle  and  fight 
until  he  had  gained  the  victory.  This,  then,  was 
the  situation  at  the  time  of  the  Jerusalem  Con- 
ference. 

As  Paul  and  Barnabas  went  on  their  way  to 
the  Holy  City,  they  reported  to  the  churches  in 
the  several  towns  through  which  they  passed 
that  the  Gentiles  were  accepting  the  gospel,  to 
the  joy  of  the  brethren  everywhere.  But  it  was 
otherwise  with  many  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians. 
Here  there  were  opposition  and  criticism.  Real- 
izing this,   and   unwilling  to   run   any  risk  in   a 


260    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

matter  of  such  vital  moment  as  the  one  which 
had  led  to  the  Conference,  Paul  conferred 
privately  with  the  recognized  leaders,  Peter, 
James,  and  John,  before  the  general  meeting  was 
held,  rehearsing  to  them  the  story  of  the  work 
both  at  Antioch,  and  on  the  recent  missionary 
journey  to  the  Gentiles,  abundantly  satisfying 
them  as  to  the  genuineness  of  it. 

On  the  following  day  the  question  was  fully 
debated  by  the  assembled  church.  Though  not 
of  one  mind,  evidently,  at  the  outset,  certain 
Pharisees  standing  strenuously  for  the  conserva- 
tive Jewish  view,  the  conclusion  which  was  finally 
reached  was  apparently  unanimous.  During  the 
discussion  Peter  spoke  of  his  experience  at 
Caesarea  some  years  previously,  when  God's 
blessing  had  attended  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentile  Cornelius  and  his  family.  He  gave  his 
voice  decidedly  in  favor  of  receiving  the  Gentiles 
to  Christian  fellowship  without  the  imposition  of 
any  purely  Jewish  conditions.  The  ruling 
principle  of  Christianity,  he  declared,  was  not 
any  mere  external  rite,  but  the  grace  of  Christ 
within  the  heart.  Whoever  believed  in  Christ 
and  looked  to  him  for  salvation  was  a  Christian; 
whether  Jew  or  Gentile.  His  address  produced 
a  profound  impression.  Then  Barnabas  and 
Paul  told  of  their  experience  among  the  Gentiles. 
Barnabas  had  been  well  and  favorably  known  in 
Jerusalem,  and  his  words  would  naturally  carry 
weight.     He    declared   how   the   Gentiles   had   be- 


PAUL  ^61 

lieved  in  Christ,  and  that  on  them  the  Holy  Spirit 
had  been  poured  out.  Would  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  take  the  responsibility  of  rejecting 
such  testimony  as  this?  Paul  followed  and  like- 
wise rehearsed  the  simple  story  of  their  work, 
confirming  what  Barnabas  had  said. 

Finally  James,  who  presided  over  the  assembly, 
brought  the  discussion  to  an  end,  summing  up 
its  chief  points,  and  indicating  what  in  his  judg- 
ment the  decision  should  be.  He  proposed  that 
they  give  their  endorsement  to  the  work  among 
the  Gentiles,  not  insisting  upon  the  Jewish  rite 
of  circumcision,  nor  troubling  them  with  any 
such  questions.  But  he  also  recommended  that 
Gentile  Christians  make  certain  concessions'  !in 
view  of  the  scruples  and  prejudices  of  the  Jews, 
who  were  to  be  found  in  every  Gentile  city,  and 
whom  it  would  be  wise  to  conciliate  rather  than 
to  antagonize.  As  these  concessions  on  the  part 
of  the  Gentiles  would  involve  the  sacrifice  of  no 
principle,  and  might  do  much  toward  the  promo- 
tion of  harmony  and  good  will,  it  seemed  but 
reasonable  to  request  it  of  them. 

These  recommendations  of  James  were  adopted, 
and  to  emphasize  the  fact  to  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians at  Antioch  and  beyond,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  promote  the  best  of  feeling  between  the 
two  classes  of  Christians,  a  delegation  consist- 
ing of  Judas  and  Silas,  both  men  of  prominence 
in  the  Jerusalem  church,  was  sent  back  with 
Paul  and  Barnabas  to  present  the  formal  report 


262    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

or  result  of  the  Conference.  This  document  was 
really  a  most  radical  one.  It  declared  that  the 
emissaries  who  had  gone  from  Jerusalem  to 
Antioch  and  had  there  caused  disturbance,  had 
not  gone  with  the  sanction  of  the  Jerusalem 
church  or  its  leaders,  but  upon  their  own  re- 
sponsibility solely.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were 
heartily  endorsed  and  their  work  among  the 
Gentiles  was  commended.  Nothing  was  said  to 
hinder  Jewish  Christians  from  continuing  to 
observe  the  Mosaic  ritual  if  they  chose  to  do 
so— the  decree  was  simply  intended  to  make  clear 
to  the  Gentiles  what  the  conditions  of  salvation 
were — perhaps,  in  view  of  what  had  taken  place, 
what  they  were  not.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  so 
far  as  they  were  concerned,  the  whole  Jewish 
ritual,  with  its  ablutions,  its  observance  of  days, 
its  discriminations  between  clean  and  unclean 
things  ceremonially,  and  all  its  peculiar  rites,  was 
swept  away.  This  is  the  document  itself,  as 
given  in  Acts  xv,  23-29: 

"The  apostles  and  the  elders,  brethren,  unto 
the  brethren  who  are  of  the  Gentiles  in  Antioch 
and  Syria  and  Cilicia,  greeting:  Forasmuch  as 
we  have  heard  that  certain  who  went  out  from  us 
have  troubled  you  with  words,  subverting  your 
souls ;  to  whom  we  gave  no  commandment ;  it 
seemed  good  unto  us,  having  come  to  one  accord, 
to  choose  out  men  and  send  them  unto  you  with 
our  beloved  Barnabas  and  Paul,  men  that  have 
hazarded  their  lives   for  the   name  of  our  Lord 


PAUL  263 

Jesus  Christ.  We  have  sent  therefore  Judas 
and  Silas,  who  themselves  also  shall  tell  you  the 
same  things  by  word  of  mouth.  For  it  seemed 
good  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  to  us,  to  lay  upon 
you  no  greater  burden  than  these  necessary 
things:  that  ye  abstain  from  things  sacrificed 
to  idols,  and  from  blood,  and  from  things 
strangled,  and  from  fornication;  from  which,  if 
ye  keep  yourselves,  it  shall  be  well  with  you. 
Fare  ye  well." 

As  might  be  inferred,  the  outcome  of  the  Con- 
ference produced  great  gratification  and  rejoic- 
ing among  the  Antiochian  Christians  and  among 
the  Gentile  churches  beyond  as  the  word  reached 
them.  Happy  would  it  have  been  for  the  cause 
of  Christ,  if  this  decision  at  the  Conference  had 
ended  the  controversy.  But  there  were  evi- 
dently those  in  Jerusalem  who  were  not  disposed 
to  fall  in  with  the  conclusions  which  had  been 
reached.  They  awaited  their  time,  and  when 
opportunity  offered,  gave  the  apostle  no  little 
anxiety  and  trouble. 

Ill 

With  the  second  missionary  journey,  Paul 
enters  upon  a  new  and  wider  career.  It  was 
signalized  by  the  introduction  of  the  gospel  into 
Europe  and  by  the  writing  of  his  earliest  apos- 
tolic letters.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  himself,  at  the 
time  he  entered  Europe,  recognized  the  full  sig- 
nificance    of    his     course.     Apparently    he    had 


264^    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

thought  only  of  a  mission  to  Asia.  Having 
preached  in  the  cities  of  eastern  and  central  Asia 
Minor,  he  had  planned  to  continue  his  work  in 
the  cities  on  the  west  coast,  some  of  them  the 
most  important  at  that  time  in  existence.  Silas, 
one  of  the  two  delegates  sent  from  the  Jerusalem 
Conference  with  himself  and  Barnabas  on  their 
return  to  Antioch,  was  his  companion  through- 
out the  journey.  Timothy,  a  young  man,  con- 
verted on  the  first  missionary  tour,  joined  them 
at  Lystra  where  he  was  born.  Luke  joined  them 
at  Troas,  and  accompanied  them  as  far  as 
Philippi,  where  he  appears  to  have  remained 
until  Paul's  visit  to  the  city  when  he  was  return- 
ing from  his  third  missionary  tour. 

This  second  journey  began  as  a  tour  of  visita- 
tion to  some  of  the  churches  which  had  already 
been  founded  in  Asia  Minor.  To  these  churches 
the  decree  of  the  recent  Conference  was  delivered, 
and  it  was  everywhere  received  with  hearty  satis- 
faction. By  means  of  it  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  progress  of  the  gospel  was  removed.  The 
result  was  that  the  churches  were  established  in 
the  faith  and  increased  in  numbers  and  strength 
greatly. 

This  visitation  of  the  churches  having  been 
completed  and  possibly  yet  others  founded,  the 
plan  of  the  missionaries  seems  to  have  been  to 
travel  westward  along  the  great  road  which  led 
from  the  Orient,  to  Ephesus,  the  chief  city  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the   capital  of  the  province  of 


PAUL  265 

Asia.  This  plan,  however,  they  were  hindered 
from  carrying  out.  "They  were  forbidden  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  speak  the  word  in  Asia."  By 
some  means  unknown  to  us,  the  Spirit,  by  whom 
their  steps  were  guided,  indicated  that  at  that 
time  they  were  neither  to  go  into  the  province  of 
Asia,  nor  yet  into  the  large  and  densely  popu- 
lated province  of  Bithynia.  For  the  present,  at 
least,  entrance  into  these  provinces  was  denied 
the  missionaries.  Though  they  may  not  have 
understood  it,  the  goal  of  their  journey  was  not 
in  Asia  but  in  Europe.  Pushing  on  in  the  direc- 
tion which  divine  guidance  permitted,  they  came 
to  Troas,  a  town  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  While  waiting  here,  uncertain  whither 
next  to  proceed,  a  vision  appeared  to  Paul  in  the 
night  in  which  he  was  summoned  to  go  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Macedonians  across  the  ^gean 
Sea.  "There  was  a  man  of  Macedonia  beseech- 
ing him  and  saying,  Come  over  into  Macedonia 
and  help  us."  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  proj- 
ect may  have  already  been  floating  in  his  mind. 
At  all  events,  the  vision  was  accepted  as  an  in- 
timation of  the  mind  of  Christ,  and  at  once  the 
missionaries  prepared  to  depart.  Thus  through 
three  distinct  divine  interpositions,  twice  hinder- 
ing them  from  going  in  other  directions,  and  now 
pointing  out  the  particular  field  in  which  they 
were  to  labor,  Paul  and  his  companions  were  led 
into  a  course  which  had  been  entirely  unantici- 
pated  by   them,   but    which    constituted   a   most 


266    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

important  step  in  the  divine  plan  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  gospel. 

Crossing  the  ^gean  Sea,  the  missionaries  came 
to  Neapolis,  the  seaport  of  Philippi,  to  which 
place,  only  a  few  miles  distant,  they  journeyed 
by  land.  Philippi  was  one  of  the  principal  cities 
in  Macedonia.  It  was  celebrated  as  the  battle- 
field where  the  Roman  republic  received  its  final 
death  blow,  when  the  armies  of  Brutus  and  Cas-. 
sius  were  overthrown  by  those  of  Augustus  and 
Antony.  Now  it  is  even  more  celebrated  as  hav- 
ing been  the  first  city  in  Europe  where  Paul 
preached  the  gospel.  Being  a  military  post 
rather  than  a  commercial  city,  the  Jewish  settle- 
ment in  it  was  small.  There  was  no  synagogue 
— only  a  proseucha,  or  place  of  prayer,  outside 
the  city.  To  this  place,  after  a  few  days,  Paul 
and  his  companions  repaired  for  worship,  along 
with  those  who  were  accustomed  to  gather  there 
for  that  purpose.  The  result  of  his  first  preach- 
ing was  the  conversion  of  the  proselyte  Lydia,  a 
seller  of  purple  of  the  city  of  Thyatira,  evidently 
a  woman  of  influence  and  position,  who  afterward 
became  their  hostess.  For  several  Sabbaths  Paul 
continued  quietly  to  preach,  and  a  church  was 
formed  consisting  of  both  Jews   and  Gentiles. 

The  work  of  the  missionaries  was  interrupted 
by  an  accusation  which  was  brought  against 
them  before  the  authorities  by  the  masters  of  a 
certain  damsel,  possessed  of  a  spirit  of  divina- 
tion, who   had  brought   them  much  gain  by  her 


PAUL  £67 

power  of  fortune  telling,  but  out  of  whom  Paul 
had  cast  the  evil  spirit.  This  attack  was  one  of 
his  many  "perils  from  the  heathen."  Whenever 
they  saw  that  the  influence  of  the  gospel  which 
Paul  preached  endangered  their  own  interests  in 
any  way,  as  frequently  it  did,  they  opposed 
its  proclamation.  In  this  case,  Paul  and  Silas 
were  dragged  before  the  magistrates,  scourged, 
and  thrown  into  prison.  The  scenes  attending 
their  imprisonment,  their  feet  in  the  stocks ; 
their  triumph  over  pain  and  suff^ering — praying 
and  singing  praises  at  midnight,  the  other 
prisoners  listening;  the  earthquake  shock;  the 
conversion  of  the  jailor;  the  subsequent  release 
of  the  missionaries — form  one  of  the  most  stir- 
ring and  graphic  episodes  in  the  book  of  Acts 
(Ch.  XVI ).  In  order  to  avoid  further  disturb- 
ance, they  departed  from  the  city,  Luke  being 
left  behind  to  instruct  and  confirm  the  infant 
church. 

Journeying  a  hundred  miles  to  the  southwest 
over  the  Roman  military  road  which  led  from 
Byzantium  (Constantinople)  to  the  Adriatic 
Coast,  the  missionaries  next  entered  Thes- 
salonica  (the  modern  Salonika),  the  capital  of 
Macedonia,  the  most  important  city,  aside  from 
Antioch  in  Syria,  which  Paul  had  thus  far 
reached.  Once  established  here,  the  gospel  would 
be  advertised  throughout  the  whole  of  Macedonia 
and  Achaia.  To  the  large  and  influential 
synagogue  which  was  located  here,  Paul  at  once 


268    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

repaired.  For  three  Sabbaths  he  reasoned  with 
the  Jews,  showing  them,  from  their  Scriptures, 
that  the  Messiah  must  suffer  and  rise  from  the 
dead,  and  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who  had  been 
crucified  by  the  Jews,  had  risen  from  the  dead, 
and  was  consequently  the  Messiah.  The  outcome 
of  the  missionary  labors  here  at  Thessalonica 
was  that  a  few  of  the  Jews  believed,  and  a  still 
larger  number  of  the  proselytes  and  devout 
Greeks.  Paul  and  his  companions  were  expelled 
from  the  synagogue,  but  not  until  the  nucleus  of 
a  Gentile  congregation  had  been  gathered. 
From  his  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  it  would 
seem  that  the  missionaries  remained  here  for  a  con- 
siderable time  longer,  preaching  the  gospel  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  that  a  flourishing  churcK,  composed 
chiefly  of  Gentile  converts,  was  formed.  But  at 
length  the  Jews,  filled  with  envy  at  the  success 
of  the  gospel  work,  stirred  up  a  tumult  against 
them,  accusing  them  of  treason  against  the 
Roman  government — of  setting  up  another  king 
than  Caesar,  one  Jesus.  In  consequence  of  this 
commotion,  they  felt  compelled  to  depart,  going 
by  night.  It  would  not  be  safe.  In  the  circum- 
stances, to  remain. 

Continuing  their  way  south-westward,  the 
missionaries  came  next  to  Berea.  Here  the  Jews 
were  less  bigoted  than  those  at  Thessalonica. 
They  gave  Paul  and  Silas  a  fair  hearing.  They 
compared  the  proofs  advanced  In  regard  to 
Jesus    as    the    Messiah,    with    their    Scriptures. 


PAUL 

The  consequence  was  that  there  were  numerous 
converts  among  them.  Everything  went  well 
until,  learning  where  the  missionaries  were,  Jews 
arrived  from  Thessalonica  to  stir  up  a  tumult 
against  them  in  Berea  similar  to  that  which  had 
but  recently  been  raised  in  their  own  city.  In 
consequence  it  was  deemed  wise  for  Paul  to  leave, 
though  Timothy  and  Silas  were  able  to  remain. 
The  danger  to  Paul's  life  must  have  been  great, 
for  he  was  taken  directly  to  the  sea-shore,  there 
to  embark  for  Athens  at  the  first  opportunity. 

At  Athens,  the  intellectual  capital  of  Greece, 
a  city  of  philosophers,  Paul  was  greatly  stirred 
by  the  signs  of  idolatry  which  he  observed  on 
every  hand.  Among  the  numerous  altars,  one 
caught  his  eye  which  had  upon  it  the  strange 
inscription,  "To  an  unknown  god."  After 
preaching  for  a  time  in  the  synagogue,  also  in 
the  market  place,  reasoning  or  arguing  with  the 
people  whom  he  met  there — disciples  of  the  two 
great  schools  of  heathen  philosophy,  the  Stoics 
and  Epicureans — he  was  invited  to  address  them 
more  formally  at  the  Areopagus,  or  Mars'  Hill, 
the  open  air  meeting  place  of  the  illustrious 
senate  of  Athens.  Here,  taking  as  his  starting 
point  the  peculiar  inscription  which  he  had  ob- 
served, he  delivered  his  celebrated  address  on  the 
true  God  and  his  fatherhood,  and  the  brotherhood 
of  all  men  from  their  all  being  his  offspring.  He 
concluded  with  the  usual  appeal  to  recognize 
Jesus  Christ  as  the  one  in  whom  God  had  made 


270    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

revelation  of  himself,  in  confirmation  of  wTiich  he 
had  raised  him  from  the  dead.  The  address  was 
one  of  rare  tact,  conciliatory  in  spirit,  recogniz- 
ing the  element  of  truth  which  lay  at  the  bottom 
of  the  mistaken  worship  of  the  Athenians.  But 
the  results  of  Paul's  labors  here  were  not  large. 
Neither  much  interest  nor  serious  opposition  was 
awakened.  We  do  not  read  that  a  church  was 
formed,  but  evidently  a  number  of  persons  were 
converted. 

It  was  a  short  journey  from  Athens  to  Corinth, 
and  to  this  city  Paul  next  directed  his  steps.  In 
striking  contrast  with  Athens,  Corinth  was  a 
commercial  city — the  commercial  metropolis  of 
the  country  and  the  most  important  city  in 
Greece.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  luxury  and  its 
vice.  It  was  the  Paris  of  the  ancient  world. 
Paul  came  here  alone,  evidently  somewhat  de- 
pressed in  spirits,  possibly  because  of  his  limited 
success  at  Athens,  perhaps  because  of  loneliness, 
Silas  and  Timothy  not  yet  having  rejoined  him, 
although  there  is  considerable  reason  for  think- 
ing that  Timothy  had  joined  him  at  Athens  and 
then  been  sent  to  Thessalonica.  Here  he  fell  in 
with  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  fugitive  Jews  from 
Rome.  They  were  Christian  Jews  and  their  oc- 
cupation was  that  of  tent-making.  With  them 
Paul  lodged  and  wrought.  They  became  most 
effective  helpers  in  his  work,  both  here  and  else- 
where. According  to  his  custom,  Paul  repaired 
to   the    synagogue   and   there   reasoned   with   the 


PAUL  ^71 

Jews,  proving  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  The 
same  result  followed  as  in  other  cities.  Expelled 
from  the  synagogue,  he  betook  himself  to  the 
Gentiles.  Not  long  after  he  was  joined  by  Silas 
and  Timothy.  Their  coming  seems  to  have  im- 
parted to  him  new  courage  and  hope.  From  this 
time  the  work  took  on  a  more  aggressive  form. 
The  result  of  their  labors  was  the  establishment  of 
a  strong  and  flourishing  church,  whose  member- 
ship was  drawn  from  the  lowest  as  well  as  the 
higher  walks  of  life.  And  yet  there  were  in  this 
church  the  seeds  of  corruption  and  strife  which 
afterwards  gave  the  apostle  no  little  trouble,  and 
which  led  to  his  writing  them  later  two  of  his 
strongest  epistles. 

It  was  during  his  residence  of  a  year  and  a  half 
at  Corinth  that  Paul  wrote  the  two  epistles 
to  the  Thessalonian  Christians.  Timothy  ,had 
brought  him  information  that  the  persecution 
which  had  begun  when  Paul  was  at  Thessalonica, 
had  been  continued.  The  disciples  there  were 
distressed,  also,  about  the  fate  of  their  deceased 
friends,  who  would  not  be  able  to  share  with  them 
in  the  glorious  experiences  connected  with  the 
second  advent  of  their  Lord,  which  they  had  come 
to  believe  was  near  at  hand.  Thereupon  Paul 
wrote  a  letter  to  them— the  first  of  his  epistles 
of  which  we  have  record  and  which  has  come  down 
to  us — to  encourage  them  in  the  midst  of  their 
trials,  to  confirm  their  faith,  and  to  comfort  them 
in  regard  to  their  departed  friends.     The  latter, 


272    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

he  said,  would  be  raised  at  Christ's  coming,  and 
so  would  be  prepared,  equally  with  themselves,  to 
welcome  the  Lord  on  his  return. 

When  the  messenger  who  carried  this  letter  to 
the  Christians  at  Thessalonica  returned,  he  re- 
ported to  Paul  the  existence  among  some  of  them 
still  of  a  spirit  so  fanatical  over  the  expected 
immediate  return  of  Christ,  that  they  were 
neglecting  daily  duties,  even  their  own  support, 
and  that  a  general  state  of  demoralization  pre- 
vailed among  them.  To  correct  this  error  and 
the  abuses  to  which  it  had  given  rise,  Paul  wrote 
a  second  epistle,  in  which  he  declared  that  it  had 
been  the  suddenness  of  Christ's  expected  coming 
which  he  had  emphasized  in  his  teachings  among 
them,  rather  than  its  immediacy.  Various  things 
must  occur  before  that  event,  things  which  could 
not  be  brought  about  in  a  moment.  Hence  there 
was  no  ground  for  the  existing  excitement  and 
its  accompanying  evils.  It  was  no  doubt  Paul's 
opinion,  as  it  was  also  the  opinion  of  the  other 
apostles,  that  the  second  advent  of  Christ  would 
occur  in  their  own  generation,  but  he  had  not 
taught  it  in  any  such  way  as  to  give  just  ground 
for  the  mischievous  results  which  had  been  mani- 
fested among  some  of  the  Thessalonian  Chris- 
tians. 

Finally,  after  a  protracted  residence  in 
Corinth,  Paul  and  his  companions,  Silas  and 
Timothy,  accompanied  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
departed,      sailing     direct     to      Ephesus.     Here 


PAUL  273 

Aquila  and  Priscilla  remained.  Paul's  stay  was 
brief,  as  he  was  hastening  to  Jerusalem  to  attend 
one  of  the  annual  festivals  of  the  Jews.  He 
promised,  however,  soon  to  return.  His  stay  in 
Jerusalem  was  also  short,  but  that  of  Silas  was 
of  considerable  length.  Paul,  with  Timothy, 
went  to  Antioch.  His  report  to  the  church 
there  of  the  results  of  the  tour  must  have  been 
startling  and  yet  immensely  encouraging. 

Thus  terminated  Paul's  second  missionary 
journey.  He  had  penetrated  into  new  countries 
and  established  churches  in  some  of  the  great 
cities  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Not  only  had  he 
confirmed  the  churches  in  Asia  Minor  which  had 
been  established  on  his  first  missionary  tour  and 
founded  others,  he  had  invaded  Europe  and 
planted  Christianity  in  at  least  four  important 
centers — Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Berea,  Corinth, 
perhaps  also  in  Athens.  The  tour  had  been  the 
boldest  of  all  his  enterprises  and  the  most  suc- 
cessful. He  has  grown  in  his  conception  of 
things,  and  his  plans  are  much  broader  than  at 
the  beginning  of  his  missionary  service.  Now  he 
can  be  contented  with  nothing  less  than  giving 
the  gospel  to  every  important  city  in  the  Roman 
Empire. 

Was  it  between  the  second  and  third  missionary 
tours  that  Peter  visited  Antioch?  So  Neander, 
Wieseler,  Sabatier,  and  some  others  think.  I^ 
so,  it  was  when  Paul  was  there  full  of  the  success 


274    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

of  his  first  European  mission,  when  his  mind  had 
been  enlarged  by  a  new  and  broader  experience, 
when  he  had  seen  again  and  again  the  narrowness 
and  bitterness  of  Jewish  prejudice,  and  had  been 
convinced,  as  never  before,  that  the  hope  of 
Christianity  was  in  the  conversion  of  the  Gen- 
tiles— that  Peter  and  Barnabas  seemed  to  waver 
in  the  opinion  that  Gentiles  could  become  Chris- 
tians without  first  becoming  Jews. 

Although  the  principles  involved  in  the  con- 
troversy between  Jewish  narrowness  and  Gentile 
universalism  had  been  definitely  defined,  the  ques- 
tion of  their  practical  application  was  not  en- 
tirely clear  to  all.  Even  the  minds  of  such 
trusted  leaders  as  Peter  and  Barnabas  seem  at 
first  to  have  been  somewhat  confused.  At  the 
outset  of  Peter's  visit  to  Antioch,  he  mingled  as 
freely  with  the  Gentile  converts  as  he  would  have 
done  if  they  had  been  Jews.  When,  later,  cer- 
tain Jewish  Christians  from  Jerusalem  appeared 
upon  the  scene  and  observed  the  fraternal  spirit 
— conspicuously  exemplified  in  his  case — which 
prevailed  between  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians, they  were  not  a  little  disturbed.  Then 
they  protested  against  Peter's  course.  They  had 
no  desire,  they  might  say,  to  impose  any  other 
burdens  upon  the  Gentile  converts  than  those 
specified  in  the  decree;  but  while  the  ceremonial 
requirements  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  not  held  to 
be  binding  upon  them,  there  was  nothing  in  it 
which    could    be    construed    as    releasing    Jewish 


PAUL  275 

Christians  from  the  obligation,  or  even  from  the 
traditions  of  the  elders.  To  ignore  these,  as 
Peter  was  now  doing,  was  not  only  disloyalty  to 
the  faith  in  which  he  as  a  Jew  had  been  reared, 
it  was  exerting  a  demoralizing  influence  upon 
others,  and  was  likely  to  imperil  the  very  exist- 
ence of  the  Mosaic  system.  Not  only  this,  but 
as  soon  as  his  conduct  should  be  reported  at  the 
Holy  City,  it  would  awaken  a  great  outcry,  lead 
to  controversy,  and  develop  antagonism.  If 
Peter  had  any  regard  for  the  religion  of  his 
fathers,  he  would  at  once  desist  from  his  free 
intercourse  with  the  Gentile  converts. 

It  was  in  view,  most  likely,  of  such  considera- 
tions as  these,  that  Peter  was  constrained  to  re- 
trace his  steps  and  withdraw  from  further  social 
relations  and  religious  communion  with  the 
Gentile  Christians.  Nor  was  Barnabas,  who 
appears  to  have  been  in  Antioch  at  the  time, 
entirely  unaff^ected  by  the  plausible  arguments  of 
the  visiting  brethren.  He  seems  also  to  have 
taken  an  attitude  similar  to  that  of  Peter.  It 
may  have  seemed  to  them  both,  in  the  circum- 
stances, a  matter  of  indifference,  involving  no 
principle,  a  question  of  expediency  simply,  or  of 
wise  policy.  But  such  a  line  of  action  on  the 
part  of  these  brethren  would  not  be  so  regarded 
by  the  clear-minded  Paul,  ever  on  the  alert  to 
guard  the  religious  liberties  of  the  Gentiles.  He 
well  knew  that  neither  of  these  men  had  in  the 
slightest   degree   altered   his   convictions    on   the 


276    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

main  question,  but  assuming  the  attitude  they 
now  did  toward  the  Gentile  brethren,  they  were 
at  least  guilty  of  dissimulation,  of  appearing  to 
be  what  they  really  were  not.  To  refuse  to  eat 
with  them  was  virtually,  in  existing  conditions, 
a  refusal  to  regard  them  as  brethren.  It  was 
not  so  much  an  error  of  doctrine  on  their  part, 
as  of  the  application  of  it.  As  for  the  Gentile 
Christians  themselves,  they  were  filled  with  alarm 
and  indignation.  Such  a  change  of  attitude  on 
Peter's  part,  or  the  part  of  any  others,  was  not 
unnaturally  regarded  by  them  as  a  change  of 
conviction. 

Paul  felt  that  something  ought  to  be  done  to 
counteract  the  evil  which  he  clearly  saw  was  re- 
sulting from  Peter's  conduct.  So  he  went  di- 
rectly to  him  and  publicly  exposed  the  inconsist- 
ency of  his  course.  If  you  who  are  a  Jew  by 
birth,  he  said,  and  therefore  have  been  brought 
up  under  the  law  of  Moses,  feel  yourself  at 
liberty  to  disregard  its  prohibitions,  and  to  live 
as  you  were  doing  a  little  while  ago,  regardless 
of  the  ceremonial  requirements  of  the  Jewish 
system,  how  can  you  justify  yourself  in  oblig- 
ing the  Gentiles  to  conform  to  the  Jewish  law.^* 
You  do  not  indeed  insist  upon  it  in  so  many 
words,  but  the  natural  inference  from  your 
present  withdrawal  from  the  Gentile  Christians, 
is  that  you  have  now  come  to  believe  that  circum- 
cision is  essential  to  salvation — something  which 
the  Conference  decided  is  not  obligatory.     If  you 


PAUL  277 

were  not  wrong  before  in  eating  and  mingling 
socially  with  the  Gentiles,  contrary  to  Jewish 
law,  how  can  you  be  right  in  refusing  to  do  so 
now? 

Thus  Paul  felt  justified  in  "withstanding  Peter 
to  his  face,"  and  Barnabas  too,  by  implication. 
Peter  had  not  intended  to  be  disloyal  to  the  Con- 
ference decree,  but  under  pressure  had  been  led 
into  an  unfortunate  inconsistency.  He  appears, 
however,  to  have  received  the  rebuke  of  Paul  in 
a  spirit  of  fraternal  meekness,  and  there  was 
no  break  in  the  cordial  relations  of  the  two 
leaders.  We  may  well  believe  that  from  this 
time  forward  there  was  no  further  faltering  on 
his  part,  either  in  word  or  in  deed.  Paul,  the 
great  champion  of  the  Christian  liberty  of  the 
Gentiles,  again  proved  his  staunch  devotion  to 
what  he  believed  to  be  right.  Not  even  his  per- 
sonal regard  for  his  friends,  or  his  natural  desire 
to  shield  them  from  embarrassment,  would  keep 
him  from  standing  for  it. 

These  proceedings  at  Antioch  amounted  to  a 
renewal  of  the  old  struggle,  and  the  conflict, 
breaking  out  here,  spread  rapidly  over  the  field 
of  Paul's  mission,  raging  with  special  bitterness 
among  the  Galatian  churches.  It  was  a  move- 
ment which  threatened  to  undo  the  work  which 
he  had,  at  great  labor  and  sacrifice,  accomplished. 
How  successfully  he  dealt  with  it  we  shall 
presently  see. 


278    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

IV 

Paul's  third  missionary  journey  seems  to  have 
had  for  its  main  object  the  evangelization  of  the 
populous  and  important  province  of  Asia  in  the 
western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  which,  on  his  previ- 
ous journey,  he  had  been  hindered  by  the  Spirit 
from  visiting.  After  thus  completing,  in  a  s^nse. 
his  work  in  Asia  Minor — ^having  already  preached 
the  gospel  in  the  cities  of  Macedonia  and  Greece 
— his  plan  was  to  preach  the  gospel  in  the  very 
capital  of  the  Roman  Empire.  This  third  jour- 
ney was  distinguished  by  his  great  success  at 
Ephesus,  and  as  the  period  of  his  struggle  with 
the  Judiac  reaction  which  gradually  developed 
after  the  Jerusalem  Conference.  It  was  during 
this  period  that  he  wrote  the  four  great  evangel- 
ical epistles  which  were  the  outcome  of  that  strug- 
gle, viz.,  one  to  the  Galatians,  two  to  the  Corin- 
thians, and  one  to  the  Romans.  Apologetic  and 
doctrinal  interests  henceforward  became  more 
prominent  in  his  work  than  before. 

After  first  visiting  the  churches  which  had  pre- 
viously been  founded  in  Asia  Minor,  Paul  went  di- 
rectly to  Ephesus,  the  metropolis  and  capital  of 
the  province  of  Asia,  and  one  of  the  three  great 
cities  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  of  which 
Antioch  in  Syria  and  Alexandria  in  Egypt  were 
the  other  two.  It  was  a  city  of  great  wealth,  and 
was  given  over  to  every  kind  of  pleasure.  The 
fame  of  its  open  air  theater — said  to  have  had  a 
seating  capacity  for  20,000  or  more  people — and 


PAUL  279 

its  race  course,  were  world-wide.  It  was  also  the 
seat  of  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Diana,  whose 
temple — which  harbored  great  numbers  of  priests 
— was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  shrines  in  the 
world.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  pilgrims 
flocked  to  it  from  far  and  near.  A  prominent 
occupation  of  the  people  of  Ephesus  was  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  little  models  of  the  image 
of  the  goddess  which  the  temple  contained.  This 
image  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The 
city  swarmed  with  fortune  tellers,  wizards,  and 
those  familiar  with  occult  arts.  As  it  was  one  of 
the  most  accessible  of  all  the  cities  in  Asia,  owing 
to  the  system  of  roads  which  centered  here,  and 
was  located  on  the  great  line  of  commerce  between 
Rome  and  the  East,  Ephesus  was  naturally 
marked  out  as  the  center  where  Paul  should  sta- 
tion himself  in  order  to  influence  the  province. 

Here  Paul  labored  for  between  two  and  three 
years,  his  longest  stay  in  any  city.  As  at 
Corinth,  he  probably  made  his  home  with  Aquila 
and  Priscilla,  for  we  learn  that  here,  also,  he  had 
to  supfKjrt  himself  by  manual  labor.  At  first  he 
preached  in  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews.  On  his 
expulsion  from  that  a  little  later,  he  continued 
his  ministrations  in  the  lecture  room  of  a  Greek 
instructor  named  Tyrannus.  Probably  in  no  city 
were  his  labors  more  blessed.  The  word  of  the 
Lord  grew  mightily.  Paul  himself  tells  us  that 
a  "great  and  eff^ectual  door  was  opened"  to  him. 
He  wrought  astonishing  miracles.     Many  profes- 


280    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

sors  of  magical  arts  were  converted  to  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  Their  books  of  magic,  which  they 
burned,  aggregated  in  value  many  thousands  of 
dollars.  As  multitudes  from  the  neighboring 
cities  came  to  Ephesus,  many  would  naturally 
hear  the  word  of  God.  Moreover,  it  is  not  im- 
possible or  improbable  that  Paul  may  have  made 
circuits  through  the  province,  preaching  and  es- 
tablishing churches.  He  may  also  have  sent  out 
some  of  his  fellow  workers,  of  whom  the  names  of 
several  are  given,  on  the  same  errand.  So  prom- 
ising a  field  would  hardly  be  neglected.  Very 
likely  it  was  at  this  time  that  some  of  the  churches 
which,  later,  were  addressed  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion, may  have  been  founded. 

A  practical  evidence  of  the  remarkable  success 
of  Paul's  ministry  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  there 
came  to  be  a  real  diminution  in  the  sale  of  silver 
shrines  of  Diana — so  much  so  that  Demetrius  and 
his  fellow  craftsmen  complained  that  not  alone 
at  Ephesus,  but  throughout  all  Asia,  "this  Paul 
persuadeth  and  turneth  away  much  people,  saying 
that  they  are  no  gods  which  are  made  with  hands." 
These  craftsmen,  headed  by  Demetrius,  stirred  up 
a  riot,  in  which  it  was  sought  to  lay  hands  on 
Paul,  but  through  the  assistance  of  friends  he 
was  able  to  elude  capture.  Foiled  in  its  attempt, 
the  mob  rushed  into  the  theater.  Here  the  thou- 
sands who  composed  it  shouted  themselves  hoarse 
for  a  space  of  two  hours,  crying  "Great  is  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians,"  many  of  them  not  knowing — 


PAUL  281 

perhaps  not  even  the  leaders  themselves — the  pre- 
cise purpose  for  which  they  were  there.  Finally, 
after  they  had  about  worn  themselves  out,  the 
town  clerk — corresponding  perhaps  somewhat  to 
our  mayor — was  able  by  his  calm,  tactful,  sensi- 
ble words,  to  quiet  and  disperse  them.  Even  be- 
fore this,  Paul  had  planned  to  revisit  the  churches 
which  he  had  founded  in  Macedonia  and  Greece, 
but  this  tumult  no  doubt  hastened  his  departure. 
Waiting  a  reasonable  time  so  as  not  to  seem  to 
have  been  driven  away,  he  set  out  on  his  journey. 
Reaching  Macedonia,  he  visits  the  churches  at 
Philippi,  Thessalonica,  and  Berea,  extending  his 
work  somewhat  also,  evidently,  into  the  regions 
beyond.  Then  he  came  to  Corinth,  where  he  spent 
three  months.  No  details  of  his  experience  in 
Macedonia  and  Greece  are  given. 

But  although  this  third  missionary  journey 
may  not  have  been  marked  by  specially  exciting 
incidents,  save  the  one  at  Ephesus,  we  know  from 
other  sources  than  the  book  of  Acts  that  it  was, 
in  many  respects,  one  of  the  most  important 
periods  of  Paul's  life.  For  it  was  probably  dur- 
ing this  time  that  the  revolt  against  him  and  his 
work  among  the  Gentiles  broke  out  in  its  most 
serious  form.  In  their  fanatical  devotion  to  the 
Mosaic  law  and  their  jealousy  lest  it  be  disre- 
garded, the  more  conservative  of  the  Jewish 
Christians  at  Jerusalem  had  at  length,  after  re- 
covering from  the  shock  of  the  Conference,  de- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

termined  to  send  out  propagandists  of  their  views 
to  visit  the  Gentile  churches  one  by  one,  and  raise 
a  warning  voice  against  the  spiritual  perils  con- 
nected with  ignoring  the  rite  of  circumcision  and 
that  for  which  it  stood.  Even  if  it  were  not  ab- 
solutely essential  to  their  salvation,  as  the  Jeru- 
salem Conference  had  decided,  still  if  they,  as 
Gentiles,  would  enjoy  the  full  privileges  of  the 
Christian  faith,  if  they  would  realize  their  own 
highest  spiritual  development,  attain  to  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  it,  they  must  conform  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Jewish  law.  Only  in  this 
way  could  they  come  into  the  full  blessedness  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  Nor  did  these  Judaizing 
emissaries  stop  here.  They  even  went  so  far  as 
to  raise  suspicions  as  to  the  genuineness  of  Paul's 
apostleship,  and  misrepresented  and  perverted  his 
motives.  Thus  unrest  and  dissension  resulted 
wherever  they  went.  The  minds  of  not  a  few  of 
Paul's  converts  were  poisoned  against  him,  and 
there  was  not  a  little  defection  from  the  faith 
which  he  had  inculcated.  The  truth  was,  the 
enormous  accessions  to  the  church  from  the  Gen- 
tiles or  heathen,  threatened  to  overwhelm  the  Jew- 
ish portion  of  it  altogether.  It  was  this  which  so 
alarmed  the  more  conservative  Jewish  element  of 
the  church  at  Jerusalem.  Hence  this  counter- 
mission  to  undermine,  if  possible,  and  to  over- 
throw Paul's  work. 

But  Paul  was  not  one  to  allow  such  undermin- 
ing work  as  this  to  go  on  among  his  converts  and 


PAUL  283 

the  churches  which  he  had  founded  without  most 
strenuous  efforts  to  prevent  it.  All  the  great 
powers  of  his  mind  and  heart  were  enlisted  in  the 
effort.  Such  churches  as  he  could  he  visited.  To 
others  he  sent  messengers.  To  others  still  he 
wrote.  With  his  unanswerable  logic  he  met  and 
demolished  the  arguments  of  his  opponents ;  with 
the  keenest  sarcasm  he  exposed  their  inconsist- 
ency; and  with  tenderest  love  he  appealed  to  his 
converts  to  remain  loyal  to  the  faith  which  they 
had  espoused.  In  no  epistle  of  Paul  which  has 
come  down  to  us  is  his  manner  of  dealing  with  the 
difficulty  more  strikingly  brought  out  than  in 
that  to  the  Galatian  Christians,  although  some- 
thing of  it  also  appears  in  his  first  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  with  indications  of  it  elsewhere. 

The  epistles  which  Paul  wrote  on  this  journey 
— those  to  the  Galatians,  to  the  Romans,  and  the 
two  to  the  Corinthians — are  among  the  greatest 
and  most  important  of  the  thirteen  of  which  he 
was  the  undoubted  author.  They  constitute  an 
anti-Judaic  group,  or  the  group  of  controversy. 
Other  topics  were  considered  in  them,  various  ir- 
regularities were  criticised,  directions  for  their 
correction  given,  Paul's  non-apostolic  authority 
vindicated  as  in  those,  especially,  to  the  Corinth- 
ians, but  primarily  they  were  called  out  to  coun- 
teract the  influence  of  Judaizing  emissaries  who 
were  seeking  to  undermine  his  work  as  an  apostle, 
and  to  bring  his  churches  into  bondage  to  the 
Judaic  yoke.     The  epistle  to  the  Galatians  was 


^84   THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

probably  written  at  Ephesus — although  some 
would  place  it  somewhat  earlier — his  first  to  the 
Corinthians  also.  Probably  the  second  to  the 
Corinthians  was  written  from  Macedonia.  Both 
these  epistles  must  have  done  much  to  prepare 
the  way  for  his  personal  visit  to  Corinth  a  little 
later.  No  doubt  before  he  reached  there  the 
various  disorders  which  had  existed  in  the 
Corinthian  church  were  in  the  main  corrected. 

It  was  while  Paul  was  at  Corinth  that  he  wrote 
his  epistle  to  the  Romans,  the  greatest  of  all  his 
epistles.  The  reason  of  his  writing  to  this 
church,  which  he  had  not  himself  founded  or  even 
visited,  doubtless  grew  out  of  the  fact  of  its  im- 
portance as  being  located  in  the  metropolis  of  the 
world.  It  was  his  earnest  desire  that  the  Roman 
Christians  should  be  well  grounded  in  the  faith 
and  protected  from  the  errors  of  heretical  teach- 
ers. Perhaps  he  would  anticipate  any  possible 
influence  there  of  the  Judaizing  propaganda.  He 
expected  soon  to  visit  Rome.  Meanwhile  he 
seizes  the  opportunity  of  sending  an  epistle  to  the 
Christians  there,  which  would  also  serve  as  a 
preparation  for  his  own  coming.  In  it  he  takes 
special  pains  to  set  forth,  with  unusual  full- 
ness, the  nature,  scope,  and  spiritual  benefits 
of  the  gospel.  To  such  as  would  receive  it, 
it  was  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation,  this 
for  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.  In  view  of  all 
the  considerations  presented,  and  as  a  means  of 
realizing  these  blessings,  Paul  exhorts  his  readers 


PAUL  ^85 

(Rom.  XII,  1)  to  a  complete  consecration. 
No  doubt  these  epistles  accomplished  their  mis- 
sion at  the  time,  but  in  their  effect  upon  succeed- 
ing ages,  which  probably  Paul  himself  little  an- 
ticipated, we  have  a  monument  to  the  influence  of 
one  of  the  greatest  men,  the  greatest  apostle,  of 
that  early  period.  Dr.  James  Stalker  ("Life  of 
St.  Paul")  well  says: 

"Overpowering  as  is  the  impression  of  the  remark- 
ableness  of  this  man  produced  by  following  him  as  he 
hurries  from  province  to  province,  from  continent  to 
continent,  over  land  and  sea,  in  pursuit  of  the  object 
to  which  he  was  devoted — this  impression  is  im- 
mensely deepened  when  we.  remember  that  he  was  at 
the  same  time  the  greatest  thinker  of  his  age,  if  not 
of  any  age,  and,  in  the  midst  of  his  outward  labors, 
was  producing  writings  which  have  ever  since  been 
among  the  mightiest  intellectual  forces  of  the  world, 
and  are  still  growing  in  their  influence." 

The  anxiety  occasioned  by  the  Judaizing 
propagandists  was  a  constant  strain  upon  the 
apostle.  Nor  was  it  a  mere  temporary  burden — 
the  struggle  continued  for  years.  Paul  was  suc- 
cessful at  last  however.  He  proved  to  be  more 
than  a  match  for  all  his  opposers  combined.  In 
his  later  writings  the  traces  of  this  controversy 
are  very  slight.  He  had  won  a  great  victory  for 
the  church,  once  for  all.  Thenceforth  Christian- 
ity, instead  of  being  the  religion  merely  of  a 
single  Jewish  sect,  stood  forth,  as  it  was 
originally  intended  that  it  should,  as  the  one  uni- 


^86    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

versal  religion.  The  first  widespread  controversy 
within  the  Christian  church  had  been  settled  and 
settled  right.  Paul  had  proved  himself  to  be  the 
providential  man  for  the  emergency. 

Paul  had  intended  to  sail  direct  from  Corinth 
to  Ephesus  or  Antioch,  but  was  prevented  from  so 
doing  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  Jews,  which  led  to 
a  change  of  plan  by  which  he  journeyed  overland 
to  Philippi.  Here  he  was  joined  by  several  of 
his  associates,  Luke  being  one  of  them.  From 
Philippi  he  continued  his  journey,  going  by  sea, 
visiting  Troas  and  other  points  by  the  way. 
Glad  as  he  would  have  been  to  visit  Ephesus  again, 
he  sailed  past  it  without  stopping,  being  anxious 
to  reach  Jerusalem  for  the  approaching  feast. 
As  his  vessel  stopped  a  few  days  at  Miletus,  thirty- 
six  miles  south  of  Ephesus,  he  sent  for  the  elders 
of  the  church  of  Ephesus  to  come  and  meet  him. 
To  these  elders  he  delivered  his  celebrated  fare- 
well address,  in  which,  after  reviewing  his  past 
labors  among  them  and  giving  them  wholesome 
counsels,  he  expressed  forebodings,  so  far  as  he 
was  personally  concerned,  for  his  own  future,  and 
said  that  in  all  probability  he  was  addressing 
them  for  the  last  time. 

The  story  of  the  remainder  of  his  journey,  his 
visits  to  Tyre,  Ptolemais,  and  Caesarea,  his  en- 
tertainment at  the  latter  place  by  Philip  the  evan- 
gelist, is  full  of  interest.  Although  his  friends 
sought  to  dissuade  him  from  his  purpose  of  go- 


PAUL  287 

ing  to  Jerusalem  in  view  of  dangers  which  he 
would  without  doubt  encounter  there  from  the 
hostility  of  the  Jews,  nothing  could  prevail  upon 
him  to  alter  his  determination.  He  felt  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  go  whatever  the  consequences ; 
and  to  Jerusalem  he  went. 

And  so  Paul's  third  missionary  journey  was 
ended.  Although  he  had  visited  but  little  new 
territory,  this  journey,  in  its  consequences,  may 
properly  be  said  to  form  the  climax  of  his  active 
missionary  labors.  Never  had  his  direct  work  of 
evangelization  been  so  successful  as  at  Ephesus, 
while  his  effort  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the 
Judaizing  propagandists  had  preserved  for  the 
churches  he  had  already  founded  their  Christian 
liberties. 


Paul  now  enters  upon  a  new  stage  of  experi- 
ence. His  own  and  his  friend's  presentiments  of 
danger  at  Jerusalem  proved  to  be  only  too  well 
grounded.  In  spite  of  precautionary  measures 
suggested  by  James  and  others  in  view  of  the 
hostile  feeling  against  him  among  the  thousands 
of  visiting  Jews,  he  was  pounced  upon  in  the 
Temple  by  some  of  his  enemies,  and  would  have 
lost  his  life  in  the  tumult  which  followed  had  he 
not  been  rescued  by  the  Roman  guard  and  borne 
into  the  castle  for  safe  keeping.  The  narrative 
as  given  in  the  Acts  (chapters  xxi-xxvi),  is  in- 
tensely  interesting,   dramatic,   thrilling,   showing 


S88    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

how  he  sought  in  vain  to  placate  his  countrymen 
by  an  address  from  the  stairway  steps  leading  to 
the  castle ;  how  he  asserted  his  rights  as  a  Roman 
citizen  when  it  was  attempted  to  draw  out  the 
truth  from  him  by  scourging;  how  he  was  nearly 
torn  in  pieces  by  the  Sanhedrin  the  next  day  as 
he  appeared  before  it,  and  was  again  res- 
cued by  the  guard;  how  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  his  life,  the  highest  Jewish  of- 
ficials winking  at  it ;  how  the  commander  of  the 
post,  learning  of  this  conspiracy,  decided  to  send 
him  by  night  under  a  strong  guard  to  Csesarea 
for  safety,  with  a  letter  to  the  Roman  governor 
Felix;  how,  shortly  after,  the  Jewish  authorities 
of  Jerusalem  sought,  but  in  vain,  to  make  out  and 
sustain  charges  against  him ;  and  how,  after 
languishing  in  prison  for  two  years  and  abandon- 
ing all  hope  of  a  fair  trial  in  his  own  country, 
he  was  constrained  to  appeal  to  Caesar,  which,  as 
a  Roman  citizen,  he  had  a  perfect  right  to  do. 
His  address  before  Festus  and  Agrippa  stands  un- 
rivaled for  beauty  and  effectiveness.  It  fully 
satisfied  these  officials  of  his  innocence,  but  the 
appeal  to  Rome  having  been  made,  nothing  re- 
mained but  for  him  to  be  sent  there. 

It  has  been  thought  that  during  the  two  years 
of  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Caesarea,  Luke  may 
have  been  near  him,  and  that  possibly  at  this  time 
he  may  have  gathered  from  all  available  sources 
the  material  for  his  two  books — the  Gospel  which 
bears  his  name,  and  the  Acts. 


PAUL  289 

That  Luke  accompanied  Paul  on  his  voyage  to 
the  capital  would  seem  to  be  clearly  evident  from 
the  description  of  it  and  its  perils.  Only  an  eye 
witness  and  participant  of  its  incidents  could  have 
written  of  them  in  the  graphic  way  which  he  did 
(Acts  xxvii).  It  is  a  thrilling  narrative.  In  it 
Paul's  faith  looms  up  more  grandly  than  ever. 
He  alone,  of  all  on  board,  seems  to  have  remained 
calm  and  collected  through  that  terrible  two  weeks' 
storm  which  threatened  their  vessel  with  destruc- 
tion and  the  loss  of  all  on  board.  It  was  by  his 
forethought  that  when,  at  length,  they  were 
about  to  be  wrecked  on  the  shore  of  the  island  of 
Melita,  the  modern  Malta,  they  were  all  enabled 
to  reach  the  land  in  safety.  Here  they  spent  the 
winter,  and  upon  the  opening  of  navigation,  pro- 
ceeded on  their  journey,  disembarking  at  Puteoli 
and  traveling  the  balance  of  the  way  by  land. 
Here  at  Rome  Paul  was  again  obliged  to  wait. 
It  was  two  years  before  his  trial  came  off.  Dur- 
ing the  time  of  this  imprisonment,  however,  he 
appears  to  have  been  granted  various  liberties, 
notably  that  of  living  in  his  own  hired  house, 
though  not  freed  from  the  constant  presence  of  a 
Roman  guard,  to  whom  he  was  chained.  Yet  even 
here  he  continued  his  evangelistic  work  as  he  had 
opportunity.  Many  came  to  see  him,  and  to 
them  he  told  the  story  of  the  cross.  He  talked 
with  his  guards  also,  and  not  a  few  of  them  be- 
lieved. Thus  at  last,  in  this  great  center  and 
capital  of  the  Roman  world,  which  his  heart  had 


290    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

been  set  upon  visiting,  he  was  preaching  the 
gospel,  which  was  unfettered  now,  to  all  classes 
and  conditions  of  men — Jews,  Gentiles,  those  of 
every  nationality,  as  he  was  able.  It  was  the  uni- 
versal gospel,  for  whose  liberation  from  its  Jew- 
ish trammels  he  had  fought  and  gained  a  great 
victory,  and  now,  although  with  limitations  from 
the  necessities  of  the  situation,  he  was  publishing 
it  without  let  or  hindrance.  His  wish  of  coming 
to  Rome  had  been  gratified,  although  not  in  the 
way  he  had  anticipated.  It  is  not  impossible, 
however,  that  he  may  have  accomplished  as  much 
for  the  cause  and  its  extension,  in  the  end,  as  if 
his  own  wishes  had  been  realized.  The  disap- 
pointment of  our  plans  is  often  overruled,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  for  higher  ends  than  we  can 
anticipate. 

But  even  here  in  Rome  the  care  of  all  the 
churches  which  he  had  been  instrumental  in  found- 
ing, rested  upon  him  as  a  heavy  burden.  To 
many  of  these  churches  he  dispatched  messengers, 
to  others  he  wrote  letters,  some  of  which  have 
been  preserved  for  the  instruction  and  inspiration 
of  the  ages.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  from  here 
that  he  wrote  to  the  Christians  at  Ephesus,  at 
Colosse,  at  Philippi,  and  his  letter  to  Philemon. 
These  are  the  most  spiritual  of  all  his  epistles. 
In  the  epistle  to  the  Philippian  Christians,  he 
pours  out  his  gratitude  for  their  thoughtful  and 
practical  remembrance  of  him  and  his  needs  on 
more   occasions   than   one.     The   keynote   of  the 


PAUL  291 

epistle  is  joj.  "Rejoice  in  the  Lord  always,  and 
again  I  say  unto  you  rejoice."  In  the  epistle  to 
the  church  at  Colosse,  which  was  some  eighty  or 
more  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Ephesus  and  which 
met  in  Philemon's  house,  Christ  is  exalted  to  the 
highest.  He  is  creator  and  Lord  of  all.  Subtle 
speculative  errors  which  had  been  creeping  into 
the  church  are  corrected,  this  mainly  by  a  setting 
forth  of  the  corresponding  positive  truth.  In  the 
epistle  which  is  addressed  to  the  Ephesian  Chris- 
tians— ^perhaps  a  circular  letter  to  a  group  of 
churches  of  which  the  Ephesian  church  was  the 
central  and  leading  one — Christ  is  also  most 
highly  exalted.  He  is  the  spiritual  head  of  the 
church.  Here  also  sundry  subtle  heresies  are 
referred  to  and  corrected.  The  epistle  to 
Philemon  is  one  in  which  the  apostle  asks  pardon 
for  a  run-a-way  slave,  Onesimus,  who  had  in  some 
way  come  under  Paul's  influence  and  been  con- 
verted, but  was  now  returning  to  his  master.  It 
is  the  briefest  of  his  epistles,  and  a  fine  illustration 
of  a  delicate  Christian  courtesy. 

And  here,  with  Paul  awaiting  his  trial  before 
Caesar,  the  narrative  in  Acts  suddenly  ends.  It 
may  be  that  the  writer  had  another,  a  third  volume 
in  mind,  in  which  to  give  further  account  of  the 
great  apostle  and  of  the  expansion  of  the  work  at 
the  hands  of  the  others.  Or  he  may  have  felt 
that  his  purpose  in  writing  the  Acts,  i.  e.,  to  show 
how  the  gospel  was  freed  from  its  Jewish  en- 
tanglements and  became  a  universal  gospel,  was 


29^   THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

now  completed,  with  its  main  champion  and 
liberator  in  the  capital  city,  and  preaching  it  to 
all  classes  without  question  or  hindrance.  Tra- 
dition would  seem  to  indicate  that  Paul  was  set 
at  liberty  as  a  result  of  his  trial,  that  he  then 
continued  his  evangelizing  work  and  his  care  of 
the  churches  he  had  already  founded,  possibly 
extending  his  work  to  Spain,  very  likely  visiting 
Macedonia,  Ephesus,  perhaps  also  Crete.  The 
three  Pastoral  Epistles,  at  least  the  first  to 
Timothy  and  the  one  to  Titus,  were  probably 
written  during  this  period.  To  both  these  help- 
ers in  his  work,  his  esteemed  and  beloved  assist- 
ants— the  former  at  Ephesus  and  the  latter  in 
Crete — he  gives  sundry  practical  directions  with 
reference  to  administering  the  churches.  It  is 
believed  that  after  a  time,  in  some  season  of  per- 
secution, Paul  was  again  arrested  and  taken  to 
Rome  for  trial.  It  must  have  been  during  this 
second  imprisonment  that  the  second  epistle  to 
Timothy — the  most  personal  and  tender  of  all 
his  epistles,  in  which  he  does  not  restrain  the  over- 
flowing love  of  his  great  heart — was  written.  It 
is  believed  that  the  outcome  of  Paul's  second  trial, 
as  he  himself  seems  to  anticipate  in  this,  his  last 
epistle,  was  his  condemnation  and  execution. 


We  have  now  reviewed  the  salient  features  of 
the  life  and  work  of  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 
We  have  seen  him  as  a  man,  his  thoroughly  Chris- 


PAUL 

tian  character  and  spirit,  his  zeal  as  a  missionary, 
his  broad-minded  thoughtfulness,  his  mighty 
championship  of  the  faith,  his  emancipation  of  it 
from  its  fetters,  the  tremendous  impulse  which 
he  gave  to  its  extension  among  the  Gentiles.  He 
was  a  man  of  marked  humility,  prayerfulness, 
conscientiousness.  He  was  correspondingly  cour- 
ageous. Even  from  physical  hardship  and  peril, 
no  matter  how  great,  he  did  not  shrink,  and  the 
same  was  true  of  him  in  moral  difficulties  and 
dangers.  In  this  realm,  indeed,  he  might  almost 
have  been  said  to  be  without  a  peer.  And  the 
secret  of  this  marvelous  heroism  was  his  faith. 
He  believed  in  the  unseen  realities.  He  was  per- 
suaded that  his  Lord,  though  invisible  to  the  nat- 
ural eye,  was  nevertheless  with  him  and  would  be, 
even  to  the  end.  At  death  he  would  go  to  him 
and  be  with  him  forever.  Hence  there  was  noth- 
ing, not  even  death,  which  could  terrify  him. 

Paul  was  a  man  of  great  singleness  of  aim.  A 
single  mighty  purpose  ran  through  his  entire 
Christian  career.  That  purpose  was  to  serve  his 
Master.  To  do  this  he  was  ready  to  sacrifice 
everything.  This  was  his  absorbing  desire.  He 
was  ready  to  spend  and  be  spent  for  his  Lord's 
sake.  And  the  motive  of  all  was  love,  the  love 
of  Christ  which  burned  within  him,  a  yearning 
love  for  his  fellow  men  and  desire  for  their  sal- 
vation.    A  mighty  enthusiasm  possessed  him. 

Paul  was  a  growing  man.  There  are  many  in- 
dications of  progress  on  his  part  in  the  apprehen- 


S94    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

sion  of  truth,  as  the  years  went  on.  His  epistles 
abundantly  show  this.  The  great  truths  which 
he  taught,  he  had  tested  for  himself.  He  would 
hardly  have  been  prepared,  immediately  upon  his 
return  from  Arabia,  for  instance,  to  set  forth  the 
exalted  truths  which  are  presented  in  Ephesians 
and  Colossians. 

Paul  was  a  man  of  vast  energy  and  of  large 
administrative  ability.  He  was  a  most  zealous 
propagator  of  the  new  faith,  the  first  and  great- 
est missionary  of  the  church.  He  pushed  Kis  way 
into  distant  provinces,  and  established  the  gospel 
at  stragetic  points,  great  centers,  whence  Chris- 
tian influences  would  radiate  into  all  the  regions 
about.  And  not  only  did  he  manifest  this  per- 
sistent and  unremitting  zeal  personally,  he  gath- 
ered about  himself  a  company  of  helpers  who  par- 
took of  this  same  spirit  whom  he  employed  to 
assist  him,  sending  them  here  and  there  into  new 
fields,  or  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  work 
in  fields  which  he  himself  had  already  visited.  Of 
his  contribution  to  the  movement  by  his  pen  and 
its  abiding  influence  in  the  church  through  the 
ages  since,  we  have  already  spoken.  How  many 
more  than  the  thirteen  epistles  which  bear  his 
name  he  may  have  written,  we  do  not  know. 
These  only  have  come  down  to  us. 

Paul  was  a  providential  man,  if  ever  there  was 
one.  At  just  the  juncture  when  he  appeared 
upon  the  stage,  such  a  man  as  he  was  needed — a 
man  with  clear  mind,  able,  strong,  one  quick  to 


PAUL  295 

perceive  the  relations  of  things,  able  to  formulate 
Christian  truth  and  in  some  measure  to  systema- 
tize it,  one  capable  of  philosophizing  upon  the 
great  facts  and  truths  concerning  Christ  which 
had  been  given  to  the  world,  but  whose  significance 
needed  to  be  more  fully  explained  than  had  yet 
been  done.  The  other  apostles  were  unlettered 
men  as  compared  with  himself  and  the  advantages 
which  he  had  enjoyed.  A  man  was  needed  who 
could  also  cope  with  the  many  errors  of  the  day 
which  sought  to  undermine  or  to  corrupt  Chris- 
tianity after  it  began  to  be  a  recognized  force  in 
the  world.  Especially  was  one  needed  who  could 
discern,  fully  grasp,  and  unflinchingly  proclaim 
the  real  distinction  between  Christianity  and 
Judaism.  And  while  Paul's  contribution  in  gen- 
eral to  the  Christian  movement  then  and  for  all 
time  as  growing  out  of  his  being  the  one  great 
thinker  among  the  early  leaders,  was  far  superior 
to  that  of  any  or  all  others  combined,  his  most 
distinctive  contribution,  as  already  observed,  was 
in  what  he  did  for  the  liberation  of  Christianity 
from  its  Jew^ish  fetters,  and  bringing  it  out  into 
the  open  as  the  one  independent,  absolute,  uni- 
versal religion.  Others  contributed  something  to 
this  end,  but  it  was  reserved  for  Paul  to  fight 
the  great  battle  through  to  a  finish.  Unless  some- 
one had  done  this,  it  is  probable  that  Christianity 
would  have  continued  for  a  long  period  to  be  the 
faith  of  simply  a  Jewish  sect  within  the  realm  of 
the  Jewish  religion. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OTHER  LEADERS 
I 

We  have  thus  far  been  studying  the  lives  and 
the  work  of  the  more  conspicuous  among  the 
early  leaders  of  the  movement  which  Christ  in- 
augurated for  the  redemption  of  the  world. 
Each  of  the  men  whom  we  have  studied  made  his 
own  contribution  to  the  progress  of  this  move- 
ment, Paul,  however,  making  the  largest  and  most 
important  contribution  of  all.  The  gospel  was 
at  last  free.  Meanwhile  everything  possible  was 
done  to  carry  it  over  the  whole  world,  so  that  at 
the  close  of  the  New  Testament  period  it  had 
been  preached  in  all  the  leading  centers  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 

But  there  were  other  leaders,  less  well  known, 
concerning  whom  slight  records  have  come  down 
to  us,  who  yet  contributed  much  toward  giving 
the  movement  momentum  and  power.  If  they  had 
less  to  do  than  some  others  with  the  special  work 
of  developing  and  promulgating  larger  and 
broader  views  of  the  gospel  than  were  at  first  and 
for  a  considerable  period  entertained  among  the 
Jewish  Christians,  they  still  had  much  to  do  with 

extending  its  bounds.     It  can  hardly  be  supposed 

296 


OTHER  LEADERS  ^97 

that  only  the  two  or  three  of  the  original  twelve 
who  are  specially  mentioned  by  the  writer  of  the 
book  of  Acts,  were  active  and  aggressive  and  suc- 
cessful in  the  spread  of  the  gospel.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  all  of  them,  having 
been  carefully  selected  by  the  Lord  himself  for 
the  responsibility  committed  to  them,  proved  their 
fitness  for  it  by  years  of  devoted  and  successful 
labor.  Each  in  his  own  way,  in  his  own  field,  did 
his  work  and  did  it  well,  and  even  without  con- 
firmatory records  we  are  undoubtedly  warranted 
in  accepting  this  as  a  fact  and  thus  in  giving  them 
the  credit  and  the  honor  which  are  their  due.  The 
traditions  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  regard 
to  the  less  known  apostles,  while  probably  not  en- 
tirely reliable,  may  yet  contain  some  truth. 

Then,  too,  there  were  others  than  the  apostles 
whose  names  are  mentioned  in  the  Scripture  nar- 
rative— men  who  became  interested  in  the  work 
as  it  progressed,  who  developed  a  special  fitness 
for  helping  it  forward,  and  whose  labors,  in  the 
aggregate,  contributed  much  to  its  success — such 
men  as  Stephen,  Philip,  Barftabas,  to  whom  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made — also  Silas,  ApoUos, 
James  the  Lord's  brother,  Timothy,  Titus,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  to  say  nothing  of  many  helpful  women. 

While  we  know  but  comparatively  little  about 
these  persons,  we  are  not  entirely  without  definite 
information  concerning  them.  We  may  notice 
them  in  order,  beginning  with 


298    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

JAMES,  THE  LORD'S  BROTHER 

James  rose  to  the  conspicuous  position  in  the 
apostolic  age  of  head  of  the  mother  church  at 
Jerusalem.  If  not  of  the  original  company  of 
the  apostles,  he  became,  after  his  conversion,  very 
closely  associated  with  them.  He  is  mentioned 
by  name  only  twice  in  the  Gospels  (Matt,  xiii,  55, 
Mark  vi,  3),  but  the  outlines  of  his  life  may  be 
traced  by  means  of  the  notices  of  the  "brethren 
of  the  Lord,"  who  seem  to  have  constituted  a  dis- 
tinct class  both  during  our  Lord's  life,  when  they 
did  not  believe  on  him  (John  vii,  5),  and  after  his 
resurrection,  when  they  are  found  among  his  fol- 
lowers (Act.  I,  14). 

The  precise  relationship  of  these  "brethren"  to 
the  Lord  has  always  been  a  matter  of  dispute. 
Some  have  thought  them  cousins,  some  half 
brothers,  but  there  would  seem  to  be  little  reason 
for  doubting  their  relation  to  him  as  real  brothers. 
They  always  appear  with  Mary,  living  and  jour- 
neying with  her.  As  the  name  of  James  stands 
first  on  the  list,  he  was  very  likely  the  oldest. 
When  or  how  he  became  a  believer  in  Christ  is 
not  stated.  It  may  have  been  in  connection  with 
some  special  appearance  of  the  risen  Lord  (1  Cor. 
XV,  7).  Of  his  subsequent  history,  we  gather 
from  the  Acts  and  the  epistles  of  Paul  that  after 
the  ascension,  he  with  his  brothers  remained  at 
Jerusalem  in  the  company  of  the  eleven  disciples 
and  Mary  and  the  women,  waiting  for  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit,  and  that  within  ten  years  from  this 


OTHER  LEADERS  299 

time  he  became  head  of  the  church.  Paul  says 
(Gal.  I,  18,  19)  that  three  years  after  his  con- 
version he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  and  stayed  with 
Peter  fifteen  days,  seeing  no  other  apostle,  only 
James  the  Lord's  brother.  Peter  on  his  escape 
from  prison  (Act.  xii,  17)  went  first  to  the  home 
of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Mark,  and  desired  that 
the  news  of  his  escape  be  sent  to  James  and 
the  brethren.  In  Gal.  n,  1-10  Paul  describes  a 
visit  to  Jerusalem  fourteen  years  after  the  first, 
when  the  leaders  of  the  church,  James,  Peter,  and 
John,  after  listening  to  his  report  of  his  first 
missionary  journey,  signified  their  approval  of 
his  work  and  gave  him  the  right  hand  of  fellow- 
ship. 

James  was  the  presiding  oflScer  at  the  Confer- 
ence which  was  held  at  this  time,  to  settle,  if  pos- 
sible, the  question  as  to  how  far  Gentile  Christians 
should  be  required  to  conform  to  the  customs  of 
the  Jews  in  becoming  disciples  of  Christ.  After  a 
general  discussion  in  open  meeting,  in  which  Peter 
appears  to  have  been  a  conspicuous  figure,  and 
after  both  Barnabas  and  Paul  had  rehearsed  the 
story  of  their  experience  in  preaching  to  the 
Gentiles  at  Antioch  and  in  connection  with  their 
recent  missionary  journey  in  Asia  Minor,  James 
sums  up  the  discussion  and  proposes  the  resolu- 
tion which  was  finally  adopted.  The  Gentiles 
were  not  to  be  burdened  with  the  Judaic  require- 
ments?. Evidently  James  stood  upon  the  same 
platform   of  faith  with  Paul,  although  as  Paul 


300    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

felt  himself  called  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles,  so 
James  felt  that  his  responsibility  was  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  Jews.  A  prominent  feature  of 
the  work  of  James,  in  fact,  seems  to  have  been 
to  smooth  the  passage  of  the  Jews  over  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

James  again  appears  in  the  same  position  as 
head  of  the  Jerusalem  church  when  Paul,  after 
his  third  missionary  journey,  presents  himself 
before  him.  He  and  the  elders  with  him  praise 
God  for  the  success  of  Paul's  labors,  but  warn  him 
of  the  strong  feeling  which  existed  among  the 
Jews  against  him  as  growing  out  a  report  which 
had  been  circulated  that  he  taught  the  Jews  of 
the  Dispersion  to  abandon  circumcision  and  some 
other  customs  of  the  fathers.  To  counteract  this 
impression,  they  suggested  that  he  join  in  the 
completion  of  the  Nazirite  vow  which  had  been 
entered  upon  by  four  men  in  the  community,  as- 
sume the  costs  of  it,  and  thus  show  that  the  report 
was  unfounded.  The  plan  did  not  succeed,  but 
the  incident  at  least  discloses  the  fraternal  in- 
terest of  James  in  the  safety  and  welfare  of  the 
apostle. 

After  Acts  xxi,  18,  we  meet  no  further  refer- 
ences to  James  in  the  New  Testament.  Secular 
history  tells  us,  however,  that  he  was  martyred 
in  a  popular  outbreak  of  the  Jews  during  the  in- 
terregnum between  the  death  of  the  procurator 
Festus  and  the  appointment  of  his  successor. 
Yet  meag'er  as  are  the  references  to  James  in  the 


OTHER  LEADERS  301 

book  of  Acts,  we  learn  enough  of  him  to  satisfy 
us  of  his  kindly  spirit  and  his  broad-mindedness. 
Was  he  the  author  of  the  epistle  which  bears 
his  name?  Nothing  in  the  epistle  itself  definitely 
answers  the  question.  The  characteristics  of  the 
letter  harmonize  perfectly  with  what  we  know  of 
James,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  consensus  of 
opinion  that  he  was  the  author.  It  is  addressed 
to  the  twelve  tribes  which  are  of  the  Dispersion, 
as  the  Jews  dwelling  outside  of  the  Holy  Land 
were  technically  called — i.  e.,  probably,  the  Chris- 
tians among  them.  The  object  of  the  epistle  was 
to  reform  and  correct  those  sins  and  errors  to 
which  its  lately  Christianized  Jewish  readers  con- 
tinued to  be  liable,  and  to  encourage  them  in  the 
sore   trials    to   which   they   were   exposed. 

SILAS 

One  of  the  men  who  was  for  a  considerable 
period  associated  with  Paul  in  his  missionary  la- 
bors, was  Silas,  whose  name,  uncontracted,  seems 
to  have  been  Silvanus.  Few  details  of  his  life  are 
given.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  distinguished 
member  of  the  apostolic  church  at  Jerusalem,  who 
is  for  the  first  time  introduced  to  us  as  one  of  the 
delegation  appointed  to  go  to  Antioch,  along  with 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  after  the  Jerusalem  Confer- 
ence, to  communicate  its  decision  to  the  Chris- 
tians at  that  place,  together  with  a  brotherly 
greeting  from  the  Jerusalem  church.  He  re- 
mained for  some  time  in  Antioch,  and  in  the  ex- 


302    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

ercise  of  the  gift  of  prophecy,  exhorted  the  breth- 
ren with  many  words  and  confirmed  them.  When 
Paul  declined  to  take  John  Mark  on  his  second 
missionary  journey,  and  he  and  Barnabas  parted 
company  in  consequence,  he  chose  Silas  aS  his 
companion  and  colleague.  It  was  a  particularly 
appropriate  choice  in  view  of  the  projected  tour 
through  Syria  and  Cilicia  to  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians, since  Silas  had  been  specially  accredited  to 
them  by  the  Jerusalem  church.  His  selection  by 
Paul  testifies  to  the  confidence  reposed  in  Paul  by 
the  more  liberal  Jewish  Christians,  as  it  would  also 
do  much  to  commend  Silas  to  those  to  whom  they 
were  to  go. 

On  this  missionary  tour,  Paul  and  Silas  jour- 
neyed not  only  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  but  in 
Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  and  places  farther 
west.  From  Troas  they  crossed  over  into  Mace- 
donia. Together  they  were  imprisoned  at 
Philippi;  they  were  together  at  Thessalonica  dur- 
ing the  riot  there;  and  together  they  were  sent 
away  to  Berea.  From  Berea  Paul  went  on  to 
Athens.  Silas  evidently  remained  behind,  but 
joined  him  later  at  Corinth.  In  this  city  he  was 
an  esteemed  co-worker  (2  Cor.  i,  19).  In  the 
two  letters  which  Paul  sent  from  Corinth  to  the 
Thessalonian  Christians,  Silvanus  is  associated 
with  himself  in  the  opening  salutations.  After 
this  Silas  disappears  from  the  narrative.  It  is 
probable,  though  not  certain,  that  he  is  the  one 
referred  to  in  Peter's  First  Epistle  (v,  12)  as  the 


OTHER  LEADERS 

bearer  of  it  to  the  Christians  in  some  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Asia  Minor.  His  reference  to  Silvanus 
as  a  faithful  brother  to  them,  would  seem  to  cor- 
respond with  his  experience  in  having  before 
visited  the  churches  of  these  regions  in  company 
with  Paul. 

If  Silas  was  not  as  conspicuous  as  some  of  the 
New  Testament  leaders,  he  was  at  least  an  effective 
Christian  worker. 

APOLLOS 

ApoUos  was  evidently  a  born  orator.  He  is 
represented  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  fervent  in 
spirit,  and  exceptionally  well  versed  in  the  Jewish 
Scriptures.  About  all  that  we  know  of  him  is 
gathered  up  in  a  brief  passage  in  the  book  of  Acts 
(Ch.  xvni,  24-28).  "Now  a  certain  Jew  named 
Apollos,  an  Alexandrian  by  race,  an  eloquent  man, 
came  to  Ephesus ;  and  he  was  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. This  man  had  been  instructed  in  the  way 
of  the  Lord,  and  being  fervent  in  spirit,  he  spake 
and  taught  accurately  the  things  concerning 
Jesus,  knowing  only  the  baptism  of  John ;  and  he 
began  to  speak  boldly  in  the  synagogue.  But 
when  Priscilla  and  Aquila  heard  him,  they  took 
him  unto  them  and  expounded  the  way  of  God 
unto  him  more  accurately,  and  when  he  was  minded 
to  pass  over  to  Achaia,  the  brethren  encouraged 
him,  and  wrote  to  the  disciples  to  receive  him, 
and  when  he  was  come,  he  helped  them  much  that 
had   believed   through   grace;   for  he   powerfully 


304    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

confuted  the  Jews,  and  that  publicly,  showing  by 
the  Scriptures  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ." 

In  these  few  verses  several  things  concerning 
Apollos  come  to  view.  First  of  all,  he  was  bom  in 
the  famous  city  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  which 
had  been  founded  in  B.  C.  325  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  At  this  time  it  was  the  second  city  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  It  was  a  great  commercial 
center,  a  mart  of  interchange  between  the  Orient 
and  the  Occident,  and  it  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  great  intellectual  centers,  also,  of  the  world, 
a  city  of  schools  and  of  learning.  Here  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  had  been  translated  into  Greek, 
and  this  translation,  called  the  Septuagint,  was 
the  one  which  was  in  general  use  in  the  time  of 
Christ.  The  city  was  cosmopolitan  in  its  make 
up,  its  inhabitants  having  been  drawn  from  many 
nationalities.  The  Jews,  who  were  SDecially  nu- 
merous, occupied  a  large  quarter  by  them- 
selves. 

In  the  midst  of  such  a  city  and  of  such  in- 
fluences Apollos  was  born  and  bred.  The  teach- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist  and  some  knowledge  of 
Jesus  had  reached  there,  and  this  teaching  Apol- 
los had  been  led  to  accept.  Yet  his  knowledge  of 
Jesus  was  only  partial,  for  he  seemed  to  know 
only  the  baptism  of  repentance  as  John  had 
taught  it.  Still,  he  became  a  zealous  preacher 
concerning  the  Messiah,  and  while  itinerating  in 
Asia  Minor,  he  came  at  length  to  Ephesus.  Here 
he  met  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  were  devoted  fol- 


OTHER  LEADERS  305 

lowers  of  Christ.  Paul  had  become  acquainted 
with  them  at  Corinth,  and  they  had  accompanied 
him  on  his  return  from  that  city  not  long  before 
this  time,  as  far  as  Ephesus.  This  Christian 
couple,  after  hearing  Apollos  preach  in  the  syna- 
gogue, and  recognizing  the  rudimentary  char- 
acter of  his  information  in  regard  to  the  gospel, 
"took  him  unto  them  and  explained  the  way  of 
God  more  perfectly."  Evidently  he  was  a  willing 
learner.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  disciples 
whom  Paul  afterward  fell  in  with  here,  who  knew 
only  John's  baptism  and  had  never  heard  that 
there  was  a  Holy  Spirit,  may  have  been  converts 
of  Apollos. 

With  his  more  complete  equipment  for  his  work, 
Apollos  now  became  desirous  of  extending  this 
knowledge  of  the  gospel  as  far  as  possible.  Ac- 
cordingly after  remaining  awhile  in  Ephesus  he 
concluded  to  go  to  Corinth.  Some  suppose  that 
he  may  have  received  an  invitation  to  visit  that 
city  from  certain  Corinthians  who  were  in 
Ephesus  at  the  time  and  heard  him  preach.  The 
brethren  at  Ephesus  therefore  wrote  letters  of 
introduction  and  of  commendation  to  those  of 
Corinth.  Reaching  there,  Apollos  "helped  them 
much  which  had  believed  through  grace,  for  he 
powerfully  confuted  the  Jews  and  that  publicly, 
showing  by  the  Scriptures  that  Jesus  was  the 
Christ." 

From  Paul's  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  we 
learn  that  divisions  had  sprung  up  in  the  church, 


S06    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

very  likely  after  the  return  of  ApoUos  to  Ephesus, 
the  names  of  Paul,  Apollos,  and  of  Peter  being 
used  as  those  of  party  leaders.  It  is  not  at  all 
likely  that  there  was  any  serious  divergence  of 
views  between  these  men,  but  the  same  truth  pre- 
sented in  different  ways,  may  have  led  undis- 
criminating  believers  to  attach  themselves  to  one 
leader  or  another  according  to  their  fancy.  At 
all  events  there  is  nothing  whatever  to  indicate 
any  personal  estrangement  between  any  of  these 
leaders,  but  rather  every  reason  to  think  the  re- 
verse. For  Paul  sought  to  persuade  Apollos  to 
return  to  Corinth,  which,  however,  the  latter  was 
unwilling  to  do.  Perhaps  he  thought  that  the 
mere  fact  of  his  presence  there,  in  the  circum- 
stances, might  serve  to  inflame  party  spirit. 

The  last  mention  of  Apollos  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  in  Titus  iii,  13.  He  was  then  in  Crete,  or 
was  shortly  expected  there,  and  Paul  urges  Titus 
to  set  him  forward  in  his  journey. 

It  was  first  suggested  by  Luther,  and  the 
opinion  is  now  quite  widely  held,  that  Apollos  was' 
the  author  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

TITUS 

Titus  was  one  of  Paul's  trusted  companions. 
Although  not  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Acts,  he 
is  frequently  referred  to  in  Paul's  epistles,  one  of 
which  is  addressed  to  him  directly.  His  birth- 
place is  unknown.     All  that  can  be  said  for  cer- 


OTHER  LEADERS  807 

tain  is  that  he  was  a  Gentile,  probably  converted 
through  the  influence  of  Paul  himself,  and  living 
at  Antioch  at  the  time  when  the  controversy  over 
the  question  of  the  circumcision  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tians arose.  He  was  among  those  who  accom- 
panied Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  Conference.  His  presence  at  this 
meeting  gave  offense  to  the  Judaizing  party,  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  compel  him  to  be  cir- 
cumcised. Paul,  in  standing  as  he  did  for  the 
freedom  of  the  Gentiles  from  the  Mosaic  law,  re- 
sisted this,  and  the  church  sided  with  him.  A 
great  principle  was  at  stake,  and  the  apostle  re- 
fused for  a  single  moment  to  endanger  it. 

How  long  Titus  remained  Paul's  companion  we 
cannot  tell.  He  may  have  been  with  him  when  he 
wrote  to  the  Galatian  Christians.  He  is  not 
again  mentioned  until  the  time  of  the  incidents 
which  caused  the  writing  of  the  first  and  second 
epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  At  this  time  Titus 
paid  two  if  not  three  visits  to  Corinth.  After  his 
first  visit,  which  had  reference  to  arranging  for  a 
systematic  collection  for  the  needy  saints  at  Jeru- 
salem, he  was  sent  back  to  deal  with  certain  diffi- 
culties which  had  recently  developed  there.  Paul 
anxiously  awaited  his  return,  expecting  to  meet 
him  at  Troas.  Apparently  the  crisis  required  a 
longer  time  than  the  apostle  expected.  So  he 
moved  on  to  Macedonia  where  Titus  rejoined  him, 
bringing  the   comforting  news   of  a   happy   ad- 


308    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

justment  of  the  main  difficulties.  Whereupon 
Paul  wrote  his  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthian 
Christians,  and  requested  Titus  to  go  on  a  fresh 
visit  to  that  city,  to  carry  the  letter,  and  to  com- 
plete the  collection.  Two  other  brethren,  prob- 
ably from  the  Macedonian  churches  and  to  repre- 
sent them,  accompanied  him.  Titus  himself  went 
as  a  representative  of  the  apostle. 

We  do  not  again  read  of  Titus  until  after  Paul's 
release  from  his  first  Roman  imprisonment.  The 
reference  to  him  is  in  the  apostle's  letter  to  him. 
This  seems  to  imply  that  Paul,  after  his  release, 
had  traveled  with  Titus  in  the  East,  that  they 
had  landed  at  Crete,  and  had  evangelized  several 
towns,  but  that  he  had  been  unable  to  remain 
longer  and  had  therefore  left  Titus  behind  to  com- 
plete the  organization  of  the  churches  which  had 
been  gathered.  Titus  found  not  a  little  opposi- 
tion, especially  from  the  Jews  (i,  10),  and  much 
tendency  to  insubordination.  Possibly  he  had 
written  to  Paul  to  report  this,  and  to  ask  his  ad- 
vice. However  this  may  be,  Paul  wrote  a  short 
letter  pressing  him  to  complete  the  organization, 
to  ordain  presbyters,  to  teach  sound  doctrine,  to 
avoid  empty  disputations,  and  to  exercise  his  au- 
thority firmly. 

The  letter  was  probably  sent  by  Zenas  and 
Apollos,  and  Titus  was  requested  to  be  ready  to 
leave  Crete  and  join  Paul  at  Nicopolis  as  soon  as 
he  should  receive  a  further  message  through 
Artemis    or    Tychicus.     Probably   it   was   thence 


-  OTHER  LEADERS  809 

that  Paul  dispatched  him  on  a  mission  to  Dalmatia 
(2  Tim.  IV,  10). 

This  is  a  bare  outline  of  Titus'  life  and  work 
— meager  enough — so  far  as  we  are  able  to  gather 
it  from  the  few  references  in  Paul's  epistles.  But 
the  references  show  two  things — that  Paul  mani- 
fested more  of  a  genius  for  administration  and 
for  easily  adapting  himself  to  all  conceivable  ex- 
igencies which  arose  in  his  varied  experience,  than 
possibly  he  has  received  credit  for,  and  that  Titus 
was  possessed  of  qualities  which  fitted  him  in  ex- 
ceptional degree  for  being  one  of  his  successful 
lieutenants.  Paul  discriminated  wisely  among  his 
associates,  selecting  the  right  men  for  different 
errands,  and  combining  their  services  in  fitting 
proportions.  These  companions  and  co-laborers 
of  Paul  were  more  in  number  than  perhaps  we 
realize,  as  we  learn  from  the  frequent  mention  of 
the  names  of  different  men  here  and  there  in  his 
epistles.  Titus  is  perhaps  a  fair  sample  of  the 
men  who  surrounded  him  and  were  employed  by 
him  in  spreading  the  truth.  He  was  evidently 
highly  e&teemed  and  greatly  beloved  by  Paul. 
He  appears  to  have  been  possessed  of  much 
strength  of  character,  and  Paul  seems  never  to 
have  feared  any  weakness  or  hesitancy  on  his  part 
in  carrying  out  his  directions.  He  was  thoroughly 
at  one  with  Paul  in  his  thought  and  purposes,  and 
Paul's  high  regard  for  him  was  evidently  thor- 
oughly reciprocated.  The  fact  that  he  was  sent 
upon  the  important  errands  which  were  entrusted 


310    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  him,  shows  him  to  have  been,  in  Paul's  estima- 
tion, possessed  of  very  high  qualities  of  character 
and  of  trustworthy  judgment. 

TIMOTHY 

Timothy  was  the  well-known  companion  and  as- 
sistant of  Paul,  whom  he  seems  to  have  loved  even 
with  the  affection  of  a  father.  The  terms  of  en- 
dearment with  which  Paul  speaks  of  him  in  his 
epistles  make  clear  the  closeness  of  the  ties  which 
bound  him  to  his  youthful  associate.  This  love 
on  Paul's  part  seems  to  have  been  fully  recipro- 
cated by  Timothy,  who  was  associated  with  the 
apostle  for  a  longer  period  than  any  other  person 
of  whom  we  have  record.  Two  letters  written  by 
Paul  to  him  have  been  preserved. 

When  the  apostle  on  his  first  missionary  tour 
visited  Lystra  in  the  province  of  Lycaonia,  Timo- 
thy's mother,  Eunice,  and  grandmother,  Lois, 
were  led  to  Christ.  From  a  child  Timothy  had 
been  instructed  in  the  Scriptures,  his  mother  be- 
ing a  Jewess,  although  his  father  was  a  Greek. 
Whether  he  was  converted  directly  through  the 
efforts  of  Paul,  or  through  the  influence  and  in- 
structions of  his  mother  after  her  own  conversion, 
is  not  entirely  clear.  When  the  apostle  again 
visited  the  place,  as  he  did  later,  on  his  second 
missionary  journey,  he  found  the  young  man  well 
reported  of  by  the  brethren  both  of  Iconium  and 
Lystra  as  an  interested  and  active  Christian 
worker.     Paul  was  much  drawn  toward  him.     He 


OTHER  LEADERS  ail 

seemed  to  be  a  congenial  spirit,  like-minded  with 
himself  and  of  corresponding  zeal,  and  he  was 
moved  with  desire  to  take  him  with  him  as  his 
companion  and  helper.  The  opportunity  was  one 
which  appealed  to  Timothy,  and  with  due  for- 
mality he  was  set  apart  to  the  work  of  an  evan- 
gelist. Inasmuch  as  he  had  never  been  circum- 
cised, it  seemed  best  to  Paul  that  the  rite  should 
be  performed.  It  would  tend  to  conciliate  the 
Jews  with  whom,  in  almost  every  place,  they  would 
be  brought  in  contact,  and  where  no  principle 
was  involved,  as  there  was  not  in  this  case,  the 
apostle  was  always  willing  and  glad  to  make  any 
concessions  which  might  facilitate  his  work. 

After  this  the  fortunes  of  Timothy  were  united 
with  those  of  Paul.  He  evidently  accompanied 
the  latter  and  Silas  on  the  remainder  of  this  sec- 
ond missionary  journey.  Together  they  crossed 
over  into  Macedonia,  where  they  visited  in  succes- 
sion Philippi,  Thessalonica,  and  Berea.  At  Thes- 
salonica  Timothy  took  an  active  part  in  the 
preaching.  When  Paul,  obliged  to  withdraw 
from  Berea,  went  on  to  Athens,  Timol;hy  and 
Silas  remained  behind,  but  followed  him  shortly 
after.  They  did  not  overtake  him,  however,  until 
he  had  reached  Corinth,  unless,  as  is  thought  by 
many,  they  rejoined  Paul  at  Athens,  from  which 
place  Timothy  was  sent  to  Thessalonica.  Here, 
through  their  combined  elforts,  a  strong  church 
was  at  length  formed.  In  the  two  letters  which 
Paul  wrote  to  the  Thessalonian  Christians  from 


312    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

this  place,  the  names  of  Silas  and  Timothy  are  as- 
sociated with  his  own. 

Timothy  remained  with  Paul  at  Corinth  the 
entire  year  and  a  half  of  his  stay  there,  and  prob- 
ably accompanied  him  on  his  homeward  journey. 
We  do  not  hear  of  him  again  until  we  find  him 
with  Paul  at  Ephesus  on  his  third  missionary 
tour.  From  here,  according  to  I  Cor.  iv,  17,  and 
before  this  epistle  was  written,  he  was  sent  to 
Corinth  to  correct  certain  irregularities  whiclT 
had  arisen  in  the  church,  but  whether  or  not  he 
actually  reached  the  city  we  do  not  know.  He 
evidently  returned  to  Ephesus  shortly  before  Paul 
left  the  place,  and  he  and  Erastus  preceded  him 
to  Macedonia,  whither  the  apostle  soon  after- 
ward followed.  From  Macedonia  he  and  Timo- 
thy went  on  to  Corinth,  where  the  two  were  both 
actively  engaged.  Timothy  is  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  number  of  those  who  escorted  Paul  from 
Corinth  on  what  proved  to  be  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  He  is  mentioned  as  being  with  him 
at  Troas  where  they  remained  for  a  week,  after 
which  very  likely  they  journeyed  together  to  the 
Holy  City,  although  this  is  not  stated.  In  fact, 
Timothy's  name  does  not  again  appear  in  the 
book  of  Acts.  Nothing  is  said  about  his  having 
been  with  Paul  during  his  two  years'  imprison- 
ment at  Caesarea,  although  we  can  hardly  think 
of  him  as  having  kept  aloof  all  this  time.  He 
must  have  followed  his  master  to  Rome,  for  in  the 


OTHER  LEADERS  313 

epistles,  written  from  that  city,  he  is  represented 
as  being  a  devoted  co-worker. 

After  Paul's  release  from  imprisonment,  he 
seems  more  than  ever  to  have  entrusted  Timothy 
with  important  responsibilities,  notably  in  placing 
him  in  charge  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  while  he 
was  himself  absent  in  Macedonia.  It  was  a  post 
of  no  little  difficulty,  especially  for  one  who  was 
still  a  young  man.  Officials  were  to  be  appointed, 
the  church  organization  was  to  be  completed,  and 
false  teachers  were  to  be  combated.  Paul's  first 
epistle  to  him  had  special  reference  to  the  task 
imposed  upon  him.  It  deals  with  the  ecclesias- 
tical difficulties  which  confronted  him,  and  gives 
him  personal  advice.  The  second  epistle  was 
written  evidently  after  Paul  had  been  arrested  a 
second  time  and  taken  to  Rome,  and  shortly  be- 
fore his  death.  It  is  the  last  product  of  the 
apostle's  pen.  He  seems  to  have  been  almost 
alone  and  he  longs  to  see  his  loved  companion 
again.  In  this  epistle  he  lays  bare  his  whole 
heart.  The  letter  was  written  partly  to  encour- 
age Timothy  in  his  evangelizing  work,  and  partly 
to  urge  him  to  hasten  to  his  side.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  he  was  able  to  comply  with  Paul's  re- 
quest and  that  he  reached  him  before  his  death, 
although  we  have  no  positive  evidence  on  this 
point.  Surely  he  would  make  the  most  strenuous 
endeavor  to  do  so.  The  only  further  reference  to 
Timothy  in  the  New  Testament  is  in  the  epistle 


SU    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  the  Hebrews,  from  which  we  learn  that  he  had 
suffered  imprisonment  but  had  been  set  at  lib- 
erty.    We  know  nothing  of  his  closing  years. 

From  these  references  to  Timothy  we  are  fully 
warranted  in  inferring  that  he  was  a  young  man 
of  most  estimable  qualities  of  character  and  of  a 
sweet  and  beautiful  spirit.  He  must  have  pos- 
sessed decided  ability  also,  or  he  could  hardly  have 
been  equal  to  the  large  responsibilities  which  were 
from  time  to  time  committed  to  him.  He  was  a 
real  companion  to  the  apostle,  a  most  valuable 
helper,  by  whose  presence  and  sympathy  Paul  was 
greatly  comforted  and  cheered  in  his  arduous  la- 
bors. While  we  know  nothing  of  his  subsequent 
career,  we  can  hardly  think  of  him  otherwise  than 
as  a  faithful,  zealous  worker  in  the  Christian  cause 
to  which  he  had  been  set  apart. 

LUKE 

The  close  relation  of  Luke  to  Paul  during  the 
closing  years  of  the  latter's  life,  and  the  fact  of 
his  authorship  of  the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name 
and  of  the  book  of  Acts,  would  seem  clearly  to 
entitle  him  to  a  place  among  the  early  leaders  of 
the  Christian  movement.  It  may  have  been  a 
minor  place,  but  it  was  an  important  one  never- 
theless. Paul  speaks  of  Luke,  indeed,  in  one  of 
his  epistles,  as  his  "fellow  laborer." 

We  know  very  little  about  Luke  directly.  He 
does  not  mention  himself — evidently  seeks  to  keep 
himself  in  the  background.     But  from  references 


OTHER  LEADERS  315 

in  several  of  Paul's  epistles  we  are  able  to  gather 
a  few  facts  in  regard  to  him.  In  one  place  he  is 
described  as  the  "beloved  physician,"  and  in  sev- 
eral cases  his  name  is  joined  with  that  of  Paul 
and  others  in  sending  salutations  to  those  ad- 
dressed. He  was  also  with  Paul  in  Rome  at  the 
time  when  his  second  epistle  to  Timothy  was  writ- 
ten. In  this  epistle  a  touching  tribute  is  paid  to 
Luke's  fidelity  in  the  words,  "Only  Luke  is  with 
me." 

But  while  Luke  is  mentioned  by  name  only  in 
some  of  Paul's  epistles,  we  may  learn  something 
of  him  from  the  book  of  Acts,  of  which  he  was 
the  author.  He  intimates  his  presence  with  Paul 
during  certain  portions  of  the  latter's  missionary 
journeyings  by  the  use  of  "we"  or  "us"  in  the 
narrative,  although  in  other  parts  the  third  per- 
son is  employed.  From  these  passages  it  ap- 
pears that  Luke  joined  Paul  on  the  second 
journey,  at  Troas,  and  went  with  him  to  Philippi. 
Again  on  Paul's  return  from  the  third  journey, 
he  rejoined  the  apostle  at  Philippi  and  went  with 
him  to  Jerusalem.  During  the  two  years  of 
Paul's  imprisonment  at  Caesarea,  he  appears  to 
have  remained  in  Palestine.  At  all  events  he 
made  the  voyage  with  him  from  Caesarea  to  Rome. 

Luke  was  evidently  of  Gentile  origin.  Early 
tradition  made  him  a  native  of  Antioch.  His 
familiarity  with  the  church  there  and  his  interest 
in  it  are  evident  from  a  number  of  passages  in 
the   Acts.     His    close    companionship    with   Paul 


SI 6    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

for  so  long  a  time  would  seem  to  indicate  that  he 
possessed  qualities  of  a  high  order.  Just  what 
his  function  was  as  Paul's  companion  and  fellow 
laborer,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  It  may 
have  been  that  of  a  general  assistant,  to  relieve 
him  of  a  portion  of  his  burdens,  or  as  a  physician 
to  look  after  his  bodily  health,  or  primarily  a 
companion  on  whom  he  could  lean,  or  all  of  these 
functions  may  have  been  combined.  It  was  evi- 
dently a  great  comfort  to  the  apostle  to  have 
Luke  with  him. 

Luke's  literary  work  is  notable  for  the  careful 
painstaking  with  which  he  collected  his  material, 
and  for  its  artistic  quality.  His  Gospel  is  the 
most  literary  production  of  the  four,  and  con- 
tains not  a  little  which  is  lacking  in  the  others. 
It  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  cultured  Greeks, 
for  whom,  especially,  it  was  written.  The  more 
universal  aspects  of  the  gospel  are  presented. 
There  is  nothing  narrow  or  contracted  about  it. 
It  was  evidently  intended  to  be  the  first  of  a 
series  of  works  on  the  origin  of  Christianity,  a 
purpose  which  he  carried  out  in  part.  From  the 
abrupt  way  in  which  the  book  of  Acts  ends,  it 
would  seem  as  if  a  succeeding  volume  must  have 
been  in  contemplation,  but  which  its  author  was 
hindered  from  writing. 

The  book  of  Acts  does  not  aim  to  rehearse  all 
that  the  apostles  did,  or  even  to  give  a  general 
history  of  the  Christian  movement  as  carried  for- 
ward  by    them.     Rather   it    seems    to    trace    the 


OTHER  LEADERS  SIT 

gradual  emancipation  of  the  gospel  from  the 
Judaism  from  which  it  came,  and  of  which,  at 
first,  it  seemed  to  be  a  part,  until  it  became  inde- 
pendent and  was  recognized  as  the  one,  final, 
universal  gospel.  Everything  in  the  narrative  is 
made  to  bear  to  this  end — the  extension  of  the 
gospel  beyond  the  bounds  of  Judaism  and  the 
Jews,  to  the  Gentiles.  Such  incidents  and  lead- 
ers only  are  introduced  as  contributed  to  this 
result.  The  book  is  very  graphically  written. 
Its  essential  historical  accuracy  has  been  proved 
by  modern  research.  It  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable historical  documents  ever  penned. 

MARK 

Another  person  who  was  brought  into  close 
relations  with  the  early  expansion  of  Christianity, 
but  of  whom  we  know  comparatively  little,  was 
Mark.  He  was  more  or  less  associated  with  both 
Paul  and  Barnabas  in  their  missionary  opera- 
tions, and  was  the  author  of  the  Gospel  which 
bears  his  name.  His  first  name  was  John,  and 
by  this  alone  he  is  once  designated  in  the  book  of 
Acts  (xviii,  5,  13).  His  mother,  Mary,  appears 
to  have  been  in  comfortable  circumstances,  and  her 
house  in  Jerusalem  was  one  of  the  meeting  places 
of  the  early  Christians.  Mark  was  cousin  or 
nephew  to  Barnabas — it  is  not  entirely  clear 
which — and  started  with  him  and  Paul  on  their 
missionary  journey  from  Antioch  into  Asia 
Minor.     For  some  reason,  which  can  only  be  con- 


ai8    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

jectured,  he  left  them  at  Perga  and  returned  to 
Jerusalem.  Paul  so  disapproved  his  course  that 
when  a  second  missionary  journey  was  proposed, 
he  was  unwilling  to  take  him  with  them.  Barna- 
bas insisted.  The  result  was  that  a  sharp  con- 
tention arose  between  the  two  missionaries,  and 
they  separated.  Barnabas  took  Mark  with  him 
on  a  journey  to  Cyprus.  Paul,  with  Silas  for  a 
companion,  set  out  upon  a  tour  which,  before  its 
completion,  included  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia, 
and  Greece. 

After  this  Mark  disappears  from  the  history 
for  a  number  of  years.  We  next  find  him  at 
Rome,  joining  with  the  apostle  in  sundry  salu- 
tations to  some  of  those  to  whom  the  latter  sent 
epistles.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the 
former  cause  of  variance  between  them  had  been 
removed.  At  a  still  later  period,  Paul  speaks  of 
Mark  in  highly  commendatory  terms :  "Take 
Mark  and  bring  him  with  thee;  for  he  is  useful 
to  me  for  ministering"  (S  Tim.  iv,  II).  Accord- 
ing to  First  Peter  (v,  13)  he  was  with  that 
apostle  in  Babylon.  Peter  calls  him  his  son. 
He  may  have  been  one  of  his  converts.  Early  tra- 
dition represents  Mark  as  the  interpreter  of 
Peter.  This  may  mean  that  he  was  a  companion 
of  Peter  in  his  later  missionary  journeyings,  or 
that  in  the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name  he  gave 
the  facts  in  regard  to  Christ  substantially  as  Peter 
was  accustomed  to  do  in  preaching.  This,  in- 
deed, is  the  generally  received  opinion. 


OTHER  LEADERS  ^19 

The  Gospel  according  to  Mark  is  the  shortest 
of  the  four.  It  is  also  the  simplest,  most 
pointed  and  concise.  The  narrative  moves  for- 
ward rapidly  and  with  much  pictorial  power.  It 
lays  special  stress  on  the  deeds  of  Christ,  rather 
than  on  his  teaching.  It  begins  with  the  fore- 
runner's mission  and  ends  with  the  resurrection. 
Christ  is  depicted  as  the  mighty  Son  of  God,  the 
conquering  Savior.  Mark  evidently  wrote  his 
Gospel  for  the  Gentiles,  particularly  for  the 
Romans.  It  is  believed  that  Mark  was  in  Rome 
with  both  Paul  and  Peter.  His  early  history 
and  his  later  associations  with  the  chief  apostles, 
fitted  him  to  become  the  writer  of  a  Gospel. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  circumstances  connected 
with  his  death. 

THE  WOMEN 

No  account  of  the  early  development  of  Chris- 
tianity and  of  those  who  aided  in  helping  the 
movement  forward  would  be  complete  without 
some  reference  to  the  part  which  faithful  women 
had  in  it.  There  were  those  who  ministered  to 
Christ  while  he  was  seeking  to  inaugurate  it. 
Even  those  at  the  cross  are  spoken  of  as  "minis- 
tering." After  the  Lord's  ascension,  the  apos- 
tles, "with  the  women,"  continued  with  one  accord 
in  prayer  and  supplication  at  Jerusalem.  Then 
there  were  others  who,  both  directly  and 
indirectly,  contributed  to  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity  during   the    apostolic   age.     Paul  recog- 


3^0    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

nized  this  and  makes  frequent  mention  of  them 
in  his  epistles,  and  the  names  of  some  of  them 
appear  in  the  book  of  Acts.  Dorcas,  a  resident 
of  Joppa,  made  garments  which  she  gave  to  the 
poor — thus  engaging  in  practical  Christian  ser- 
vice, and  so  helping  on  the  general  movement. 
When  she  died  there  was  widespread  sorrow. 
Peter  was  sent  for.  After  prayer  he  bade  her 
arise,  and,  to  the  joy  of  all  her  friends,  her  life 
returned.  As  a  result  of  this  miracle,  many 
were  led  to  believe.  The  fame  of  it  spread  far 
and  near.  Dorcas  societies  are  named  for  her. 
Thus  her  influence  is  still  felt. 

W^hen  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
Europe,  the  first  convert  was  a  woman.  Paul 
and  Silas  went  out  from  Philippi  to  the  riverside, 
"where  prayer  was  wont  to  be  made."  One  of 
the  company  of  women  who  had  gathered  here 
for  their  devotions  was  Lydia.  Her  heart  "the 
Lord  opened"  that  she  attended  unto  the  things 
which  were  spoken  of  Paul,  "and  she  and  her 
household  were  baptized."  Thereupon  she  be- 
sought the  missionaries,  saying,  "  If  ye  have 
judged  me  faithful  to  the  Lord,  come  into  my 
house  and  abide  there,"  and  this  they  did.  In 
this  unpretending  scene  at  the  riverside,  the 
conversion  of  Europe  began.  It  would  seem  that 
the  Christian  work  of  women  was  characteristic 
of  the  church  which  was  at  this  time  formed  in 
Philippi.     In    the    epistle    addressed    to    it    long 


OTHER  LEADERS  321 

afterward,    we    find    Paul    saying,    "Help    those 
women  who  labored  with  me  in  the  gospel." 

Reaching  Thessalonica,  Paul  and  Silas  found 
"the  chief  women  not  a  few"  among  the  true  and 
active  believers.  Of  the  two  converts  at  Athens 
who  are  specified  by  name,  one  was  a  woman.  At 
Corinth  and  in  its  neighborhood,  we  encounter 
the  familiar  names  of  Chloe,  Priscilla,  and 
Phoebe,  while  in  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  which 
was  written  from  Corinth,  the  enumeration  of 
female  converts — mentioned  in  terms  which  show 
that  they  were  active  laborers  in  the  good  cause 
— is  very  remarkable  (Rom.  xvi,  3-15).  Priscilla 
appears  here  as  elsewhere,  and  among  other 
women  we  find  the  following  specified,  also  with 
an  allusion  to  their  services.  "Mary,  who 
bestowed  much  labor  upon  us";  "Tryphaena  and 
Tryphosa,  who  labor  in  the  Lord" ;  "Persis,  who 
labored  much  in  the  Lord."  Such  phrases  imply 
a  system  of  widespread  sympathy  and  service  in 
the  Christian  cause.  But  it  is  in  the  name  and 
description  of  Phoebe  that  the  whole  case  is  most 
completely  summed  up:  "I  commend  unto  you 
Phoebe,  our  sister,  who  is  a  servant  (deaconness) 
of  the  church  which  is  at  Cenchrea;  that  ye  re- 
ceive her  in  the  Lord  as  becometh  saints,  and  that 
ye  Assist  her  in  whatsoever  business  she  hath  need 
of  you ;  for  she  hath  been  a  succorer  of  many,  and 
of  myself  also."  Cenchrea  was  the  eastern  sea- 
port of  Corinth,  and  distant  from  it  about  nine 


Sm    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

miles.  A  large  amount  of  brave  and  active  serv- 
ice is  revealed  in  the  phrase  "a  succorer  of  many." 
Now  Phoebe  goes  to  Rome,  and  Paul  follows  her 
with  his  gratitude.  Very  likely  she  is  the  bearer 
of  his  letter.  Christianity  certainly  owes  much  to 
women,  and  it  owed  more  in  those  early  days  than 
is  generally  recognized. 

And  then  there  is  Priscilla.  She  and  her  hus- 
band Aquila  are  always  associated  in  the  good 
work.  Upon  Paul's  arrival  in  Corinth,  he  found 
there  certain  Jews  who  had  recently  come  from 
Rome.  The  emperor  Claudius  had  commanded 
that  all  Jews  depart  from  the  city.  Among  them 
were  these  two.  In  them  Paul  found  congenial 
companions.  "And  because  they  were  of  the  same 
craft  (tent-making),  he  abode  with  them  and 
taught."  The  friendship  thus  formed  continued 
during  the  years  following.  Whether  or  not  the 
two  were  converted  to  Christianity  before  Paul 
met  them  is  uncertain ;  in  due  time,  if  not  from  the 
first,  they  became  hearty  Christians,  helping  each 
other  in  the  work. 

We  next  hear  of  them  at  Ephesus.  Paul  was 
going  to  Jerusalem,  and  they  accompanied  him 
from  Corinth  as  far  as  this  city.  Here  they 
remained,  Paul  promising  to  return  later.  It  was 
not  long  before  they  had  opportunity  to  render 
a  signal  Christian  service.  Apollos,  the  eloquent 
preacher  and  "mighty  in  the  Scriptures,"  was 
here.  After  they  heard  him  preach,  they  dis- 
covered that  there  were  some  respects   in  which 


OTHER  LEADERS  323 

he  needed  further  equipment  in  order  to  the  most 
effective  service.  He  had  not  been  fully  in- 
structed in  the  things  of  Christ — only  in  the 
teachings  of  John  the  Baptist.  So  they  devoted 
themselves  to  the  task.  It  was  something  which 
they  were  well  qualified  to  do  from  their  long  as- 
sociation with  Paul.  They  instructed  Apollos 
more  fully  in  the  teaching  which  they  had  them- 
selves received.  A  large  share  of  this  work  evi- 
dently fell  to  Priscilla.  That  she  possessed  abili- 
ties of  a  high  order  would  seem  to  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  her  name  is  always  mentioned  along 
with  her  husband's — in  a  number  of  instances  is 
mentioned  first.  The  willingness  of  Apollos  to 
learn,  and  to  learn  from  a  woman,  speaks  well  for 
his  spirit.  When  finally  he  was  minded  to  go  into 
Achaia,  she  and  Aquila  encouraged  him  to  do  so, 
and  letters  of  commendation  were  given  him. 
When  he  came  to  Corinth,  he  "helped  them  much 
which  had  believed  through  grace."  Paul  had  in- 
structed Aquila  and  Priscilla  at  Corinth,  they 
instruct  Apollos  at  Ephesus,  and  he  then  passes 
on  to  Col*inth  to  "water"  where  the  apostle  had 
"planted." 

After  Paul  joined  Aquila  and  Priscilla  here  at 
Ephesus,  as  planned,  we  read  that  the  church  was 
in  their  house.  It  was  the  acknowledged  meeting 
place  for  the  disciples  of  Christ,  for  instruction, 
worship,  and  mutual  help.  Later  the  two  re- 
turned to  Rome,  whence  they  had  previously  been 
exiled. 


SU    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Here  their  hospitality  was  still  prominent,  for 
in  writing  to  the  Roman  Christians  Paul  refers  to 
the  fact  that  the  church  was  in  their  house.  In 
addition,  they  are  said  by  Paul  in  his  epistle  to 
the  Romans,  not  only  to  have  been  "his  helpers  in 
Christ  Jesus,"  but  to  have  "laid  down  their  own 
necks  for  his  sake."  This  points  to  some  heroic 
facing  of  danger  in  his  behalf.  The  personal 
gratitude  of  Paul  breaks  out  warmly  in  this  pas- 
sage: "To  whom  not  only  I  give  thanks,  but  all 
the  churches  of  the  Gentiles." 

Throughout  all  the  oppositions  which  Paul  en- 
countered, Priscilla  and  Aquila  remained  his  loyal 
supporters,  and  this  friendship  continued  to  the 
end.  Shortly  before  his  martyrdom,  Paul  sends 
them  a  loving  salutation,  the  only  salutation  in 
the  affecting  letter — the  second  to  Timothy 
(IV,  19). 

As  we  gather  together  all  the  references  in  the 
book  of  Acts  and  in  the  epistles  to  the  ministry 
of  Christian  women,  we  are  surprised  at  the  num- 
ber and  significance  of  them.  If  none  of  these 
women  stand  out  as  leaders  in  the  Christian  move- 
ment in  the  same  sense  in  which  Peter,  Barnabas, 
and  Paul  did,  they  were  certainly,  from  the  very 
first,  most  effective  helpers  in  it,  ministering  in 
more  quiet  and  retired  ways,  and  they  should  re- 
ceive for  it  the  credit  which  is  justly  due  them. 


OTHER  LEADERS  a25 

II 

THE  APOSTLES 

Of  the  men  included  in  the  "glorious  company 
of  the  apostles,"  there  are  no  fewer  than  four 
lists  in  the  New  Testament.  No  two  of  these 
lists  exactly  coincide,  but  on  examination  it  will 
be  found  that  the  twelve  names — for  that  was  the 
number  chosen — fall  into  three  groups,  in  each  of 
which  the  same  four  apostles  are  found,  though 
not  always  mentioned  in  the  same  order.  The 
first  group,  which  is  invariably  headed  by  Simon 
Peter,  includes  also  his  brother  Andrew,  and 
James  and  John  the  sons  of  Zebedee.  The  second 
group,  headed  by  Philip,  comprises  in  addition 
Bartholomew,  Matthew,  and  Thomas.  In  the 
third  group,  in  which  James  the  Son  of  Alpheus 
is  always  first  and  Judas  Iscariot  always  last,  we 
also  find  Judas  the  son  of  James,  or  as  he'is  some- 
times called,  Thaddeus,  and  Simon  the  Cananaean. 

In  pursuance  of  our  plan  to  sketch,  even  if  but 
briefly,  other  leaders  of  the  New  Testament  move- 
ment than  those  who,  like  Peter  and  John, 
Stephen,  Philip,  Barnabas  and  Paul,  were  spe- 
cially conspicuous,  and  some  who,  though  less  so, 
are  yet  specially  referred  to  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment— we  now  turn  to  those  members  of  the 
apostolic  company  who  have  not  already  been 
considered.  Our  knowledge  of  them  is  very 
limited,  and  sometimes  we  are  largely  if  not  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  uncertain  tradition.     Yet 


326    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

it  cannot  fail  to  be  interesting,  in  this  connection, 
to  note  such  facts  as  we  have,  and  with  such  au- 
thority as  may  attach  to  them. 

ANDREW 

We  begin  with  Andrew,  the  story  of  whom  must 
always  have  a  special  interest  for  us,  if  only  be- 
cause he  was  the  first  called  of  Christ's  disciples, 
and  also  because  it  was  through  his  influence  that 
his  more  distinguished  brother  Peter  was  led  in 
like  manner  to  become  a  disciple. 

Andrew  was  born  at  Bethsaida  on  the  lake  of 
Galilee.  Like  his  brother  Peter  he  was  a  fisher- 
man, and  with  him  had  a  home  at  Capernaum. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist.  When  at 
length  the  One  of  whom  John  was  the  herald  act- 
ually appeared,  Andrew  was  ready  to  accept  him. 
Pointing  to  Jesus  one  day,  the  Baptist  said  to 
John  and  Andrew,  "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God 
which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world."  This 
led  to  their  following  him  and  attaching  them- 
selves to  him  as  his  disciples.  Then  it  was  that 
Andrew  went  off  in  search  of  his  brother  Peter, 
to  whom  he  made  the  joyous  announcement,  "We 
have  found  the  Messiah."  This  resulted  in 
Peter's  becoming  a  disciple  also.  Had  Andrew 
done  nothing  else  than  this,  he  would  deserve  the 
eternal  gratitude  of  the  church. 

The  references  to  Andrew  in  the  Gospels  and 
Acts  are  few.  He  joined  with  his  brother  and 
James  and  John  in  enquiring  of  Christ  as  to  the 


OTHER  LEADERS  3^7 

time  of  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple, 
and  of  his  own  second  coming  (Mark  xii,  3,  4). 
He  is  the  one  who  volunteers  information  about 
the  lad  with  the  loaves  and  fishes  at  the  time  of 
the  miracle  of  feeding  the  five  thousand  on  the 
northeast  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi), 
and  he,  with  Philip,  presented  to  Jesus  at  Jeru- 
salem, the  request  of  the  Greeks  who  desired  to 
see  him  (John  xii,  22).  Nothing  trustworthy  is 
known  about  his  subsequent  life.  According  to 
tradition  he  was  martyred  in  Achaia  by  crucifix- 
ion on  a  cross  shaped  like  the  letter  X,  which  is 
now  called  St.  Andrew's  cross.  He  seems  to  have 
been  of  a  kindly,  unostentatious  disposition, 
simple-minded,  who  always  knew  just  what  to  do. 
His  whole  life  was  one  of  comparative  obscurity 
and  of  the  humility  which,  so  far  from  seeking 
great  things  for  itself,  is  content  rather  to  be 
the  means  of  getting  great  things  done  for  or  by 
others.  After  Christ's  ascension,  his  name  ap- 
pears in  the  list  of  the  eleven  who  waited  in  the 
upper  room  for  the  promised  gift  of  the  Spirit, 
and  with  this,  as  far  as  Scripture  is  concerned, 
he  passes  out  of  sight. 

JAMES,  THE  MARTYR.  APOSTLE 

James,  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  brother  of  the 
apostle  John,  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
trusted  followers  of  our  Lord.  Of  his  birthplace 
or  early  home,  we  are  told  nothing.  All  we  know 
is  that  he  was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  and 


S2S  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

along  with  his  father  and  brother  pursued  the 
trade  of  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
that  it  was  while  engaged  in  this  work  he  was 
dejfinitelj  summoned  to  become  a  follower  of  Jesus. 
He  seems  early  to  have  found  his  way  into  the 
inner  circle  of  the  disciples,  for  he  is  specially 
spoken  of,  along  with  John  and  Peter,  in  con- 
nection with  some  of  the  most  solemn  occasions 
of  our  Lord's  life.  Yet  there  is  nothing  in  con- 
nection with  any  of  these  occasions  which  tends 
to  throw  any  light  on  the  individual  character  of 
the  apostle  himself.  Along  with  his  brother  John, 
he  received  from  Jesus  the  surname  Boanerges,  or 
son  of  Thunder.  For  it  was  these  two  brothers 
who,  after  they  had  been  sent  forward  on  one 
occasion  to  prepare  for  his  entertainment  at  a 
Samaritan  village,  and  had  brought  back  word 
that  he  would  not  be  received,  asked  permission 
to  call  down  fire  on  the  offending  villagers.  This 
impetuous,  intolerant  disposition  on  their  part 
was  at  once  rebuked.  They  little  realized  what 
manner  of  spirit  they  were  of. 

At  another  time  the  two  brothers  aroused  the 
indignation  of  the  rest  of  the  disciples  by  their 
request  of  Jesus,  through  their  mother,  that  they 
might  have  seats  at  his  right  and  left  hand  re- 
spectively in  his  kingdom,  which  they  ignorantly 
assumed  was  to  be  material  and  political.  This 
ambitious,  self-seeking  spirit  on  their  part,  was 
also  rebuked  by  Jesus.  It  was  then — when,  in 
answer  to  the  question  of  the  Lord  if  they  were 


OTHER  LEADERS  3^9 

able  to  drink  of  his  cup  and  be  baptized  with  the 
baptism  with  which  he  would  be  baptized,  they  had 
declared  themselves  able — that  they  were  told  that 
they  should  indeed  drink  of  his  cup  and  be  bap- 
tized with  his  baptism,  but  that  honors  in  his 
kingdom  were  not  in  his  power  to  assign.  Our 
Lord's  words  were  literally  fulfilled  in  the  case 
of  James  in  his  martyrdom  fourteen  years  later 
at  the  hands  of  Herod  the  king.  How  his  life 
was  spent  during  this  interval  we  do  not  know, 
but  that  he  must  have  been  zealous  and  earnest 
in  Christ's  service,  and  a  marked  man,  is  made 
evident  in  the  fact  that  he  was  singled  out  as  the 
first  apostolic  martyr.  Alarmed  at  the  rapid 
progress  which  the  new  sect  was  making,  Herod 
resolved  to  strike  a  blow  against  its  leaders,  and 
shortly  before  the  passover  noted  in  Acts  xii,  he 
"killed  James  the  brother  of  John  with  the 
sword."  This  is  all  we  are  told  of  an  event  which 
must  at  the  time  have  made  a  profound  impres- 
sion upon  the  early  church.  James  was  the  first 
of  the  apostles  to  seal  his  testimony  with  his 
blood.  He  evidently  possessed  a  strong  charac- 
ter, was  bold  and  uncompromising  in  his  advocacy 
of  the  truth,  or  he  would  hardly  have  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  king  in  the  way  that  he  did. 

PHILIP 

Philip,  one  of  the  twelve,  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida.  He  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
Philip  the  Evangelist,  the  story  of  whose  work  in 


3S0     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

Samaria  and  of  his  interview  with  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch  has  been  preserved  in  the  book  of  Acts 
(Ch.  vii).  He  had  probably  been,  like  his  fellow 
townsmen,  Andrew  and  Peter,  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist.  He  was  the  first  one  whom  the  Lord 
called  directly  to  be  one  of  his  followers,  after 
which  he  found  Nathanael  and  brought  him  to 
Jesus.  Philip's  name  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  incident  of  the  feeding  of  the  five  thou- 
sand. "Whence  shall  we  buy  bread  that  these 
may  eat?"  said  Jesus  to  Philip.  This  inquiry,  it 
is  expressly  stated,  was  intended  to  "prove"  him, 
for  Jesus  himself  knew  what  he  would  do.  Philip 
had  not  thought  of  a  miracle  at  this  time,  and 
seems  to  have  looked  upon  the  feeding  of  the 
multitude  as  wholly  impracticable. 

Shortly  after  Christ's  triumphal  entry  into 
Jerusalem,  certain  Greeks  desired  to  see  Jesus, 
and  applied  to  Philip  who  put  them  in  communi- 
cation with  him.  The  last  incident  in  which 
Philip  is  specially  mentioned  occurred  a  few  days 
later  when  the  Master  and  his  disciples  were  to- 
gether in  the  upper  room.  The  Savior,  in  seek- 
ing to  comfort  the  little  company  in  view  of  his 
coming  departure,  had  told  them  of  the  many 
mansions  above  in  his  Father's  house,  whither  he 
was  to  go  to  prepare  a  place  for  them  that  where 
he  was  they  might  be  also.  Philip,  unable  readily 
to  grasp  the  significance  of  what  his  Lord  was 
saying,  asked  Jesus  to  explain  it  more  fully. 
"Show  us  the  Father,"  he  said,  "and  it  sufRceth 


OTHER  LEADERS  331 

us."  If  he  could  only  see  him  with  the  natural 
eye,  everything,  he  felt,  would  be  made  clear. 
Then  Jesus  made  this  reply:  "Have  I  been  so 
long  time  with  you,  and  dost  thou  not  know  me 
Philip.?  He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the 
Father;  how  sayest  thou,  show  us  the  Father? 
Believest  thou  not  that  I  am  in  the  Father  and  the 
Father  in  me?  the  words  that  I  say  unto  you  I 
speak  not  from  myself:  but  the  Father  abiding  in 
me  doeth  his  works." 

From  this  point  Philip  disappears  from  the 
Gospel  narrative.  In  the  book  of  Acts  his  name 
appears  simply  in  the  list  of  the  eleven.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  he  lived,  after  the  ascension,  as 
one  of  the  "great  lights  of  Asia,"  and  was  buried 
at  Hierapolis  along  with  his  two  aged  virgin 
daughters.  With  the  scanty  material  at  hand 
for  estimating  Philip's  character,  there  is  little 
which  can  be  said  with  certainty.  He  appears  to 
have  been  honest,  faithful,  and  earnest,  not  very 
quick  of  apprehension,  but  conscientious  in  the 
path  of  duty  when  he  saw  it. 

BARTHOLOMEW 

Both  by  the  early  church  and  in  modem  times, 
Bartholomew  has  generally  been  identified  with 
Nathanael  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  referred  to  es- 
pecially in  the  first  chapter.  If  this  is  not  the 
case,  then  we  know  nothing  whatever  of  him.  As- 
suming the  identity  to  be  established,  however,  we 
are  then  able  to  say  that  his  call  to  be  a  follower 


332    THE  NEW. TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

of  Jesus  was  effected  through  the  instrumentalit}^ 
of  the  disciple  Philip.  He  was  a  native  of  Cana  of 
Galilee,  whom  Jesus  declared  to  be  an  Israelite 
indeed  in  whom  was  no  guile — not  sinless,  but 
sincere  and  candid,  open-minded  and  simple- 
hearted.  After  Philip  had  himself  been  called,  he 
found  Nathanael  and  brought  him  to  Jesus,  in  the 
conviction  that  a  personal  interview  would  con- 
vince him  that  he  was  the  Messiah.  The  result 
was  as  Philip  anticipated,  and  Nathaneal  also  be- 
came a  disciple  (John  i,  45-51).  His  name  oc- 
curs only  once  more  in  the  Gospel  narrative,  viz, 
John  XXI,  2,  where  it  is  among  those  of  the  seven 
mentioned  to  whom  the  risen  Jesus  manifested 
himself  after  they  had  spent  a  night  of  fruitless 
fishing  on  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

According  to  tradition,  which,  however,  has  lit- 
tle ground  for  credit,  he  afterward  traveled  into 
India,  and  returning  thence,  preached  in  Armenia, 
and  Cilicia.  Eventually,  so  it  is  said,  he  met  his 
death  by  being  first  flayed  alive,  then  crucified. 

MATTHEW 

At  the  time  of  his  call  to  be  a  follower  of 
Christ,  Matthew  was  a  publican  or  tax  gatherer 
of  the  Roman  or  Herodian  government.  It  was 
while  he  was  sitting  at  or  near  the  place  of  toll, 
in  or  near  Capernaum,  that  Jesus  summoned  him, 
and  we  read  that  he  immediately  responded.  He 
was  afterward  appointed  one  of  the  twelve. 
Mark  and  Luke  give  his  name  as  Levi,  and  state 


OTHER  LEADERS  333 

that  his  father's  name  was  Alpheus.  He  may 
have  received  the  name  Matthew  when  he  became  a 
Christian,  or  he  may  have  had  two  names  originally 
as  was  not  uncommon  among  the  Jews.  Although 
he  belonged  to  the  despised  class  of  publicans, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  personally  given 
to  extortion  and  fraud,  as  was  common  with  of- 
ficials of  his  class,  neither  is  there  evidence  that 
he  was  not.  The  prevailing  suspicion  and  con- 
tempt in  which  publicans  were  held,  could  hardly 
fail  to  have  exerted  a  hardening  effect  upon  him. 
No  doubt  the  fact  that  Jesus  had  accepted  a  pub- 
lican as  a  disciple  had  something  to  do  with  en- 
couraging others  of  the  outcast  classes  to  seek  his 
presence  and  listen  to  his  teachings.  The  oppo- 
sition of  the  Pharisees  would  naturally  be  in- 
creased by  this.  At  the  feast  which  Matthew 
gave  to  Jesus  soon  after  his  conversion,  many 
"publicans  and  sinners"  were  present.  In  reply 
to  the  criticisms  of  the  Pharisees  growing  out  of 
this  fact,  the  Lord  made  this  memorable  answer: 
"I  am  not  come  to  call  the  righteous" — i.  e.,  those 
who  regard  themselves  as  righteous — "but  sinners 
to  repentance." 

The  story  of  Matthew  is  an  emphatic  witness 
to  the  great  truth  that  Jesus  is  no  respecter  of 
persons.  The  fact  that  Matthew  was  a  tax- 
gatherer  did  not  deter  the  Lord  from  recogniz- 
ing in  him  one  who  had  qualities  to  fit  him  for  his 
service,  although  to  select  him  was  really  to  set 
at    defiance    all    the    ordinary    considerations    of 


S34    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

worldly  prudence.  Matthew  does  not  come  be- 
fore us  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament  except 
through  the  bare  mention  of  his  name  in  the  lists 
of  the  twelve.  After  Christ's  ascension  he  re- 
mained for  some  years,  according  to  tradition,  in 
Jerusalem,  preaching  to  the  Jews.  On  leaving 
Jerusalem  he  went,  apparently,  as  a  missionary 
to  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
lived  the  life  of  a  religious  ascetic.  Accounts 
vary  as  to  his  death.  In  the  eastern  church  it 
was  the  common  belief  that  he  died  a  natural 
death.  In  the  western,  it  was  believed  that  he 
was  slain  by  the  sword. 

The  special  work  of  Matthew  which  has  come 
down  to  us  and  for  which  the  gratitude  of  the 
Christian  church  is  due,  is  the  Gospel  which  bears 
his  name.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  written  spe- 
cially for  Jewish  readers.  His  frequent  quota- 
tions from  the  Messianic  passages  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  having  been  fulfilled  in  Jesus,  and 
which  would  especially  appeal  to  Jews,  would 
seem  to  confirm  this. 

THOMAS 

The  apostle  Thomas  was  also  called  Didymus, 
a  Greek  name,  meaning,  like  Thomas,  a  twin.  He 
is,  and  probably  always  will  be,  remembered  for 
his  doubt.  And  yet  it  is  an  unnecessarily  harsh 
judgment.  At  such  a  critical  time,  when  th^ 
most  tremendous  interests  were  at  stake,  it  ought 
not  to  be  considered  strange  that  one  should  be 


OTHER  LEADERS  836 

unwilling  to  accept  the  testimony  of  even  one's 
closest  companions  in  regard  to  the  resurrection 
of  Jesus,  but  should  insist  upon  the  clear  and  un- 
mistakable evidence  of  one's  own  senses. 

All  the  material  we  have  for  studying  Thomas 
consists  entirely  of  a  few  brief  notices  in  John's 
Gospel,  and  yet  these  are  sufficient  to  leave  a 
pretty  distinct  impression  upon  our  minds  as  to 
the  kind  of  man  he  was.  In  the  first  notice,  which 
occurs  in  the  narrative  of  events  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  disciples  were 
astonished  that  Jesus  proposed  to  venture  again 
into  Judea  when  only  a  little  before  the  Jews  had 
threatened  to  stone  him.  Then  Thomas,  deter-^ 
mining  to  share  the  peril  of  his  Lord,  said  to  his 
fellow  disciples,  "Let  us  also  go  that  we  may  die 
with  him"  (John  xi,  16).  So  strong  is  his  devo- 
tion to  his  Master,  that  not  even  the  prospect  of 
death  is  sufficient  to  deter  him  from  sharing  his 
fortunes  with  him. 

Later,  when  Jesus,  in  anticipation  of  his  de- 
parture, spoke  of  going  to  prepare  a  place  for 
the  disciples  and  added  that  they  knew  where  he 
was  going  and  the  way,  Thomas  broke  out, 
"Lord  we  know  not  whither  thou  goest ;  how  know 
we  the  way.?"  (John  xiv,  5).  These  were  not  the 
words  of  idle  curiosity,  but  rather  of  honest  per- 
plexity. Then  Jesus  sought  to  encourage  him, 
saying,  "I  am  the  way,  and  the  truth,  and  the 
life.  No  one  cometh  unto  the  Father,  but  by  me" 
(xiv,  6). 


S36   THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

After  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  Thomas  was 
not  present  at  his  first  meeting  with  the  disciples. 
When  he  learned  that  Jesus  had  presented  himself 
to  them  he  declared,  "Except  I  shall  see  in  his 
hands  the  prints  of  the  nails,  and  put  my  finger 
into  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  put  my  hand  into 
his  side,  I  will  not  believe."  It  was  this  incident 
which  gave  rise  to  his  designation  as  "doubting 
Thomas."  Eight  days  later  when  he  was  present 
with  the  rest,  Jesus  again  came,  and  as  if  having 
read  the  very  thoughts  of  Thomas,  he  offered  him 
the  proof  that  he  had  desired.  "Reach  hither  thy 
finger,  and  see  my  hands ;  and  reach  hither  thy 
hand  and  put  it  into  my  side ;  and  be  not  faithless 
but  believing."  Then,  overwhelmed  with  evidence 
which  his  senses  could  not  question,  he  broke  out 
in  the  adoring  exclamation — which  contained  the 
loftiest  tribute  which  any  of  the  disciples  bore  to 
the  divinity  of  their  Lord — "My  Lord  and  my 
God"  (John  XX,  £4-29). 

Thomas  was  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  six 
other  disciples  when  Jesus  hailed  them  from  the 
beach  and  told  them  where  to  cast  the  net  (John 
XXI,  1-8),  and  was  with  the  rest  of  the  apostles  in 
the  upper  room  after  the  ascension.  Tradition 
makes  him  afterward  labor  in  Parthia  and  Persia, 
dying  in  the  latter  country.  At  a  later  date, 
India  is  named  as  the  place  where  he  preached  and 
suffered  martyrdom. 

The  story  of  Thomas  should  give  encourage- 
ment to  honest  doubters,  for  just  as  he  was  sat- 


OTHER  LEADERS  S37 

isfied  at  length,  so  anyone  may  be  who  comes  to 
the  evidences  with  open  minded  spirit.  Christian- 
ity challenges  investigation,  and  there  are  proofs 
sufficient  to  answer  any  reasonable  doubt. 

JAMES,  JUDAS,  AND  SIMON,  THE  UNKNOWN 
DISCIPLES 

There  is  little  more  than  a  reference  to  the 
names  of  these  three  apostles,  who  belong  to  the 
last  group  of  four  of  the  apostolic  band,  in 
the  New  Testament. 

Mark  speaks  of  the  first  as  "James  the  son  of 
Alpheus**  (Mark  ni,  18).  So  far  as  we  can  judge, 
he  has  no  connection  with  any  of  the  other 
Jameses  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  He 
is  almost  entirely  unknown. 

Judas  is  carefully  to  be  distinguished  from 
Judas  Iscariot  who  betrayed  his  Lord.  The  only 
word  ascribed  to  him  in  all  the  Gospels  was  the 
question  put  to  Jesus  at  the  farewell  meeting 
with  the  twelve:  "Lord,  what  is  come  to  pass 
that  thou  wilt  manifest  thyself  unto  us  and  not 
unto  the  world.''"  (John  xiv,  2^).  It  shows  how 
little,  apostle  that  he  was,  he  appreciated  the  real 
nature  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  Christ. 
Apart  from  this,  the  whole  of  Judas'  history  is  a 
blank.  The  early  church  traditions  concerning 
him  are  involved  in  too  great  confusion  to  furnish 
reliable  information. 

All  that  we  know  of  Simon  is  contained  in 
Mark's   description    of   him   as   "the   Cananaean" 


SS8    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

(Mark  m,  18),  or  Luke's  reference  to  him  as  "the 
Zealot"  (Ch.  vi,  15,  Acts  i,  13).  By  the  Zealots 
is  generally  understood  a  fanatical  party 
headed  by  Judas  of  Galilee  who  were  so  bitterly 
opposed  to  the  dominion  of  Rome  that  they  were 
ready  to  hasten  the  Messianic  hope  by  the  sword. 
It  is  thought  that  Simon  before  becoming  a  dis- 
ciple of  Christ  may  have  actually  belonged  to  this 
party.  And  yet  it  is  not  impossible  that  this 
designation  may  have  been  intended  to  point  to 
his  personal  character,  and  that  "as  the  first 
Simon  was  rock-like,  so  the  second  was  charac- 
terized by  jealousy  for  what  he  conceived  to  be 
right  and  true." 

Though  so  little  is  known  of  these  three 
apostles,  their  very  obscurity  renders  them  pecu- 
liarly interesting  to  us.  They  were  individually 
faithful  and  devoted  workers  for  the  kingdom  of 
their  Lord.  They  certainly  would  not  have  been 
selected  by  him  without  some  adequate  reason. 

JUDAS  ISCARIOT 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  at  length  upon  the 
disciple  who  will  always  be  remembered  for  his 
base  betrayal  of  his  Lord.  Yet  because  he  was 
one  of  the  twelve  until  he  voluntarily  withdrew 
from  their  company,  a  few  words  may  be  devoted 
to  him.  By  his  surname  Iscariot,  he  is  dis- 
tinguished from  another  of  the  twelve  who  was 
named  Judas.  Judged  by  his  character,  he  prob- 
ably  followed   Jesus   because   he   hoped  to  gain 


OTHER  LEADERS  339 

earthly  advantage  from  the  establishment  of  his 
kingdom.  He  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
company,  but  like  some  modern  treasurers,  he 
proved  recreant  to  his  trust,  appropriating  a  por- 
tion of  the  money  to  his  own  personal  ends. 
Knowing  that  the  chief  priests  were  desirous  of 
getting  Jesus  into  their  power,  Judas  went  to 
them  and  offered  to  betray  him  for  a  price.  The 
amount  agreed  upon,  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  was 
about  $19.50  of  our  money,  and  from  that  time 
forth,  until  it  was  accomplished,  he  sought  op- 
portunity to  deliver  Jesus  to  them.  This  finally 
occurred  after  the  last  interview  of  the  disciples 
and  the  Master  in  the  upper  room,  where  the 
"Lord's  Supper"  was  instituted,  and  they  had  all 
gone  out  to  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane.  Thither 
Judas  came,  accompanied  by  a  multitude  with 
swords  and  staves,  from  the  chief  priests  and 
elders.  In  accordance  with  a  sign  which  had  been 
agreed  upon,  he  pointed  Jesus  out  by  kissing  him, 
whereupon  the  arrest  took  place.  Next  morning, 
seeing  that  Jesus  was  condemned  and  was  to  be 
put  to  death,  Judas  went  to  the  chief  priests  with 
confession  and  offered  to  return  the  money. 
When  they  refused  to  listen  to  him,  he  threw 
down  the  silver  pieces  before  them,  and  went  out 
and  hanged  himself. 

These  are  the  bare  facts  of  Judas'  life.  As  to 
the  real  motive  of  his  betrayal  of  Jesus,  opinions 
are  not  altogether  agreed.  In  the  thought  of 
some,  the  comparatively  small  sum  of  money  in- 


34*0    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

volved  would  hardly  seem  adequate  to  account  for 
so  heinous  a  deed.  It  is  not  impossible  that  he 
may  have  been  so  stung,  for  the  time  being,  by 
words  which  Christ  had  uttered  concerning  him- 
self, that  under  the  influence  of  his  anger  he  was 
led  to  the  desperate  course  which  he  pursued,  and 
of  which  he  repented  as  soon  as  he  realized  its 
serious  consequences.  Or,  as  is  the  charitable 
thought  of  others,  may  he  not  have  sought  in  this 
way  to  force  Jesus  to  do  what  he  seemed  strangely 
reluctant  to  do,  viz.,  to  declare  himself  once  for 
all  the  Messiah-king,  and  exercise  his  great  power 
in  thwarting  the  designs  of  his  enemies,  even  after, 
humanly  speaking,  they  had  him  in  their  power.? 
When  he  saw  how  completely  the  scheme  miscar- 
ried, and  that  instead  of  asserting  his  high  pre- 
rogatives and  his  almighty  power  he  meekly 
yielded  to  the  inevitable — overwhelmed  with  re- 
morse which  he  was  unable  to  endure,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  distress  by  suicide.  But  the  precise 
motive  which  actuated  Judas  is  only  known  to 
Him  who  is  able  to  read  the  hearts  of  all  men. 


We  have  now  completed  the  survey  proposed  of 
the  inauguration  of  the  great  movement  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  world,  and  of  the  leading  spirits 
among  its  early  promoters  and  their  individual 
contributions  to  its  progress  during  the  New 
Testament  period.  The  providential  preparation 
for  it,  some  of  the  mighty  obstacles  it  was  obliged 


OTHER  LEADERS  341 

to  surmount  at  the  very  outset,  the  remarkable 
advance  which  it  made,  especially  after  it  had  be- 
come disentangled  from  Judaism,  until  it  had  oc- 
cupied the  main  strategic  points  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire and  entered  upon  its  world-wide  conquest, 
have  come  under  review.  With  some  set-backs 
from  time  to  time,  from  hindrances  without  and 
from  corruptions  within,  it  has  been  steadily,  and 
— during  the  more  recent  centuries  especially — 
with  increasing  momentum,  been  making  its  head- 
way in  the  world  ever  since.  Although  its  con- 
quest is  far  from  complete  as  yet,  Christianity  is 
now  recognized  as  the  mightiest  moral  and  spirit- 
ual force  in  all  the  earth,  and  from  its  nature, 
and  the  character  of  the  victories  which  it  has 
achieved  already,  there  is  abundant  warrant  for 
the  confidence  that  the  whole  world  will  yet  be 
brought  under  its  sway,  and  that  its  claim  to  be 
the  one  universal  and  final  religion  for  all  man- 
kind will  be  triumphantly  vindicated. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY, 
UNIVERSAL,  FINAL 

The  Scriptures  record  the  gradual  disclosure 
of  God  and  his  truth  to  men.  This  was  brought 
about  in  connection  with  the  history  of  a  par- 
ticular people  chosen  for  this  purpose.  The  cul- 
mination of  this  progressive  revelation  was  real- 
ized in  the  person  and  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus 
Christ,  in  whom,  it  was  declared,  there  "dwelt  the 
fullness  of  the  godhead  bodily" ;  that  he  was  "God 
manifest  in  the  flesh."  The  religion  which  he  an- 
nounced, of  which  he  was  himself  the  embodiment 
and  center,  and  which  gathered  up  into  itself  all 
previously  revealed  truth  but  adding  infinitely 
more,  was  the  outgrowth,  the  ripened  fruitage, 
the  fulfillment  of  that  rudimentary  Jewish  reli- 
gion which  prepared  the  way  for  and  led  up  to  it. 

This  new  religion  which,  broadly  speaking,  we 
term  Christianity,  claimed  directly  and  indirectly 
to  be  universal  and  final.  This  was  foreshadowed 
from  the  first.  Back  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  the 
founder  of  the  chosen  race,  it  was  promised  that 
in  him  and  his  descendants  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth  should  be  blessed.  For  a  long  time  the 
crude  religion  of  his  descendants  was  but  tribal 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       343 

or  national — each  nation  then  had  its  own  dis- 
tinctive faith  and  gods — yet  there  were  elements 
or  germs  in  this  faith  which  gave  promise  of  un- 
folding into  a  religion  which  would  ultimately  in- 
clude the  whole  world  in  its  scope.  This  the 
prophets  early  recognized.  They  seemed  to  catch 
glimpses  of  a  glorious  time  to  come  when  no  out- 
ward regulations  would  be  needed  in  worship, 
when  national  limits  would  be  obliterated,  racial 
distinctions  be  done  away,  and  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews  be  the  recognized  God  of  all  the  earth. 
This  thought  reaches  its  climax  in  Isaiah.  The 
gods  of  the  nations,  he  says,  are  idols,  nothings. 
This  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews,  who  is  a  living  God,  with  all  power, 
the  Creator  of  all  things,  and  Ruler  over  all. 
Universality  was  the  ultimate  goal  of  the  Hebrew 
faith.  All  through  the  Old  Testament, .  at  its 
highest  points,  this  is  recognized,  this  is  the  ex- 
pectation. The  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Mo- 
saic law  pointed  to  this,  the  utterances  of  the 
great  prophets  emphasized  it.  When  finally 
Christ  came  and  the  gospel  was  given,  the  same 
thought  was  both  assumed  and  declared.  The 
good  tidings  which  he  announced  were  for  all  men, 
regardless  of  race,  or  locality,  or  condition.  No 
ritual,  no  traditions,  no  sacrifices,  no  pilgrimages, 
no  burdensome  external  conditions  were  required. 
The  new  religion  was  fitted  for  all  men,  and  was 
intended  to  be  given  to  all.  Such  expansion,  in- 
deed, was  the  law  of  its  being.     In  Christ  there 


344    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

was  to  be  neither  Jew  nor  Gentile.  The  link  bind- 
ing men  to  God  was  not  to  be  of  race,  or  to  con- 
sist of  anything  external.  The  relation  between 
them  was  to  be  purely  moral.  It  was  to  be  a  re- 
ligion of  love:  there  was  to  be  perfect  confidence 
between  them.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
Christ's  life,  the  universal  purpose  and  character 
of  his  work  were  made  manifest.  The  disciples, 
though  at  first  they  seemed  not  fully  to  grasp  this 
purpose,  were  to  go  into  all  the  world  and  preach 
this  gospel  to  every  creature.  This,  in  obedience 
to  Christ's  command,  they  did.  And  this  has  been 
the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  apostles  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  ever  since.  The  conquest  of  the  world 
for  Christ  is  their  aim.  This  is  the  gospel's  goal. 
The  idea  of  a  world  conquest  lies  at  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Christian  religion. 

This  claim  of  the  gospel  to  universality  and 
finality  is  a  stupendous  one.  Is  it  warranted? 
Are  there  solid  reasons   for   admitting  it.'' 


One  consideration  in  support  of  this  claim  is 
the  fact  that  Christianity  or  the  gospel  is  per- 
fectly adapted  to  man  as  man.  It  corresponds 
completely  to  the  needs  of  the  nature  with  which 
he  has  been  endowed.  This  is  something  which 
can  be  said  of  no  other  religion. 

Man  possesses  a  religious  nature.  Worship  is 
a  universal  human  instinct.     This  is  true  of  every 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       345 

race  and  tribe.  Proofs  of  this  abound  on  every 
hand.  No  evidence  has  been  adduced  to  the  con- 
trary. The  instinct  may  be  less  clearly  or 
strongly  manifested  in  some  cases  than  in  others, 
but  it  is  never  absent.  Always  and  everywhere, 
even  in  the  lowest  races,  it  has  been  natural  for 
man  to  worship.  Sometimes  this  instinct  has 
found  expression  in  fetichism,  sometimes  in  bowing 
down  to  images  of  wood  and  stone,  sometimes  in 
the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  of  natural 
objects  deified,  or  imaginary  gods,  even  of  devils. 
But  as  man  has  advanced  in  knowledge  he 
has  become  conscious  of  needs  in  his  nature  which 
none  of  these  objects,  nor  anything  of  earthly 
origin,  could  relieve.  Conscience  has  been  found 
to  be  a  tremendous  fact,  especially  if  one's  life  has 
been  out  of  harmony  with  right  living — a  fact  to 
be  reckoned  with;  sin  a  terrible  reality,  with  the 
sense  of  condemnation  which  goes  with  it,  and  of 
hopeless  bondage  to  its  power.  There  are  the 
troubles  and  sorrows  of  life,  sad  realities,  with  no 
adequate  comfort  or  consolation  available  from 
human  or  earthly  source.  There  are  the  aspira- 
tions and  longings  which  reach  far  beyond  the 
present  life.  These  are  some  of  the  profound 
realities  and  needs  of  the  nature  with  which  man 
has  been  endowed,  and  they  have  given  rise  to 
anxious  inquiries,  and  occasioned,  often,  the  keen- 
est distress. 

Has  any  provision  been  made  to  answer  these 


346     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

needs?  All  other  necessities  of  man's  being  have 
been  provided  for  in  God's  economy — how  is  it  in 
regard  to  these? 

It  would  seem  as  if  there  must  have  been  some 
provision.  Joseph  Cook  used  to  say  that  there 
are  no  half  hinges  in  nature.  Food  has  been  sup- 
plied for  the  relief  of  physical  hunger  in  man  and 
beast,  and  water  to  quench  their  thirst.  The  bird 
has  wings — there  is  air  in  which  to  use  them. 
The  fish  has  fins — there  is  likewise  a  sphere  ap- 
propriate in  which  to  operate  them.  In  some  ani- 
mals and  birds  there  is  a  migratory  instinct. 
This  means  that  there  is  a  region  somewhere  cor- 
responding to  it.  So  if  man  has  been  endowed 
with  a  religious  nature  and  with  the  deep  needs 
which  pertain  to  it,  we  reason  that  there  must  be 
some  adequate  provision,  some  reality,  to  cor- 
respond with  it.  There  are  no  half  hinges  in 
nature. 

Is  any  adequate  answer  to  these  needs  to  be 
found  in  the  leading  non-Christian  faiths  of  the 
world?  Have  Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  Con- 
fucianism, Mohammedanism,  any  systems  of  phi- 
losophy, past  or  present,  brought  to  men  the  re- 
lief, in  these  deeper  respects,  which  they  have 
craved  ? 

We  would  not,  in  any  indiscriminate  or  whole- 
sale way,  disparage  these  religions  and  systems 
which  have  existed  so  long  and  which  have 
gathered  to  themselves  so  many  adherents.  They 
contain  not  a  little  that  is  good,  and  not  a  little 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       347 

truth.  They  inculcate  many  wholesome  moral 
precepts.  With  all  the  errors  they  contain  and  all 
the  evils  connected  with  them,  they  are  not  de- 
void of  many  excellencies.  Each,  in  its  own  way, 
in  its  own  race  or  land,  may  have  served  some 
providential  end,  may  in  some  sense  prove  to  be  a 
school-master  or  tutor  to  lead  ultimately  to 
Christ.  But  it  only  requires  even  superficial  ex- 
amination of  the  teachings  of  these  several  reli- 
gions and  a  study  of  their  effects  wherever  em- 
braced, to  make  evident  how  far  short  they  come 
of  holding  up  a  perfect  moral  standard  and  of 
answering  these  profounder  needs.  There  is  no 
truth  in  them  which  is  not  found  in  richer  and 
purer  form  in  the  Christian  religion,  and  each 
truth  balanced  by  its  just  corrective,  which  is  ab- 
sent from  these  others.  In  it  there  are,  in  fact, 
whole  realms  of  thought  and  whole  fields  of  morals 
into  which  many  of  these  religions  have  not  en- 
tered. Too  often  there  is  lack  of  anything  to 
bind  these  faiths  to  moral  life.  Some  of  them  are 
actually  unclean.  No  doubt  noble  characters  are 
to  be  found  among  their  adherents,  and  some  of 
a  deep  reposefulness  of  spirit,  but  these  are  ex- 
ceptional as  compared  with  the  hopeless  and  de- 
spairing millions  of  their  followers,  whose  lives 
are  untransformed  morally,  and  whose  souls  are 
feeding  upon  husks.  They  know  nothing  and 
their  religions  teach  nothing  as  to  the  forgiveness 
of  sin,  as  to  a  way  of  release  from  its  power,  as 
to  personal  fellowship  with  the  eternal  God  and 


S48     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

consequent  inward  restfulness  and  peace  here,  or 
as  to  a  well-founded  hope  of  a  conscious,  personal, 
and  blessed  life  to  come.  Most  of  these  religions 
do  not  answer  or  pretend  to  answer  the  profound 
and  most  real  needs  of  human  nature. 

It  was  not  until  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ, 
long  fore-shadowed  and  gradually  prepared  for, 
intended  for  this  very  purpose,  was  at  length 
made  known,  that  this  which  had  been  lacking  in 
all  these  other  faiths,  so-called,  was  at  length 
supplied.  Such  has  been,  for  twenty  centuries, 
the  testimony  of  those  who  have  received  the 
Christian  religion.  They  have  found  that  it  act- 
ually does  lift  from  the  soul  its  awful  sense  of 
guilt  and  condemnation  before  a  holy  God,  im- 
parting a  sense  of  his  forgiving  love.  Christian- 
ity alone,  of  all  the  religions  of  the  world,  has 
been  proved  to  possess  redemptive  power,  making 
possible  a  progressive  victory  over  self  and  sin, 
breaking  the  fetters  which  hold  men  in  bondage. 
Salvation  from  sin  and  its  power  is  its  distinctive, 
crowning  glory.  It  has  constantly  demonstrated 
its  ability  to  impart  enduring  consolation  and 
comfort  in  human  sorrow,  and  to  answer  the  soul's 
deepest  aspirations  and  longings.  It  gives  abid- 
ing rest  and  peace  to  the  human  spirit,  and  a  well- 
founded  hope  of  a  blessed  and  personal  immor- 
tality. The  Christian  religion  alone,  of  all  the 
religions  of  the  world,  as  experience  has  abun- 
dantly demonstrated,  perfectly  meets  the  needs  of 
man's  religious  nature. 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       349 

Are  we  not  then,  in  view  of  all  these  things, 
fully  warranted  in  the  conviction  that  this  was 
God's  intended  provision  for  these  needs,  given  at 
length,  with  marked  tokens  of  his  favor  attend- 
ing the  gift,  crowning  all  in  the  resurrection  of 
his  Son  from  the  dead,  when  the  powerlessness  of 
these  other  faiths  to  accomplish  this  end  had  be- 
come manifest,  and  the  world  was  ripe  to  receive 
it.  No  other  religion  fits  the  case.  This  does, 
and  perfectly. 

II 

Again,  Christianity  meets  all  the  tests  which  a 
religion  claiming  to  be  final  must  confront. 

One  of  these  has  to  do  with  its  conception  of 
God.  This  is  the  most  perfect  conceivable. 
Other  religions  present  but  fragmentary  concep- 
tions at  best.  Some  of  these  are  to  a  degree 
worthy,  some  are  unworthy,  perverted,  some  are 
positively  debasing,  all  of  them  are  inadequate. 
But  the  God  of  Christianity  is  one  who  is  holy, 
just,  loving,  omniscient,  all-powerful,  just  the 
God  for  whom  man  seeks  and  for  whom  his  heart 
yearns.  The  character  and  spirit  of  God  are 
perfectly  exemplified  in  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  who 
is  both  able  and  willing  to  do  for  man  the  utmost 
that  he  needs,  conditioned  only  upon  his  willing- 
ness to  receive.  Only  such  a  conception  of  God 
as  this  affords,  can  be  an  adequate  basis  for  a 
final  religion. 

Again,   one  of  the  ends   aimed   at  in   all   reli- 


350     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

gions  is  to  bring  about  individual  communion  with 
the  deity  or  deities  which  they  recognize.  The 
finality,  indeed,  of  a  religion,  may  be  judged  by 
its  ability  to  do  this  very  thing,  since  failure  at 
this  point  means  failure  to  satisfy  the  deepest 
longings  of  the  human  heart.  But  all  the  non- 
Christian  faiths,  with  their  partial  or  perv^erted 
conceptions  of  the  one  true  God,  come  short  just 
here.  No  such  provision  is  made.  No  such  ex- 
perience is  possible.  Only  in  the  religion  of  Jesus 
Christ  is  this  realized.  God  makes  himself  known 
in  his  will  and  purpose  through  the  incarnation  of 
his  Son,  and  through  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
which  he  bestows  upon  every  believer.  He  be- 
comes an  inward  abiding  presence,  and  a  sweet  and 
satisfying  communion  is  thus  realized. 

Another  test  has  to  do  with  moral  ideals  and 
standards,  and  the  power  of  realizing  them. 
These  standards  and  ideals  in  Christianity  are  ex- 
emplified in  the  life  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ. 
They  are  the  highest  conceivable.  They  repre- 
sent absolute  perfection.  Beyond  them  we  can- 
not go.  But  not  only  are  these  standards  per- 
fect: the  gospel  provides  motive,  or  inspiration, 
or  a  spiritual  force  adequate  to  a  progressive  real- 
ization of  them  in  individual  experience.  Not 
only  is  the  power  of  sin  broken,  but  a  gradual 
transformation  of  character  into  the  divine  like- 
ness is  made  possible.  Herein  Christianity  stands 
alone.  Only  in  the  message  of  Christ's  gospel  has 
the  secret  of  redemption  and  a  complete  transfor- 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       351 

mation  of  character — which  the  world  has  always 
longed  for  but  never  before  realized — been  dis- 
closed to  mankind.  This  is  its  distinctive  fea- 
ture among  all  the  religions  of  the  world,  this  is 
its  crowning  glory.  This  would  seem  to  be  suffi- 
cient evidence  that  the  final  religion  has  been 
reached. 

Again,  the  final  religion  must  be  as  truly  fitted 
for  one  age  as  for  another.  It  must  be  free  from 
the  trammels  or  the  environment  of  any  particular 
period.  And  this  condition  is  also  perfectly  met 
in  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ.  No  one  age  can 
claim  it — it  belongs  to  all  the  ages.  Its  teach- 
ings are  adapted  to  all  time.  Such  parables  as 
the  Prodigal  Son  and  the  Good  Samaritan,  the 
teachings  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  Ten 
Commandments,  the  condition  of  salvation,  are  as 
true  to-day  as  ever  in  the  past,  and  as  they  will  be 
true  in  all  the  years  to  come,  or  as  long  as  human 
nature  remains  what  it  is.  These  things  cannot 
be  said  of  any  other  religion.  These  other  faiths 
partake  more  or  less  of  a  local  coloring,  or  are 
adapted  to  certain  race  peculiarities  only.  While 
possessing  some  of  the  elements  of  universality 
and  finality,  it  may  be,  no  one  of  them  possesses 
all  the  elements  as  Christianity  does.  The  reli- 
gion of  Jesus  Christ  is  a  religion  for  the  ages. 

The  final  religion  must  satisfy  the  rational  test. 
It  must  meet  the  demands  of  the  human  reason  at 
its  best.  If  it  cannot  do  this,  it  will  not  commend 
itself  to  universal  confidence  and  acceptance. 


352     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

We  are  endowed  with  a  rational  nature.  Our 
reason,  quickened  by  the  spirit  of  God,  must  be 
our  guide.  Does  the  religion  of  Christ  present  a 
God  for  our  acceptance  who  can  inspire  our  deep- 
est reverence?  Are  his  commands  reasonable? 
Is  he  such  a  being  as  to  warrant  our  full  confidence, 
such  as  to  justify  us  in  committing  the  guid- 
ance of  our  lives  to  him  here,  and  our  destiny  here- 
after? Is  the  religion  which  he  offers  adequate  to 
meet  the  needs  of  a  nature  of  infinite  possibilities? 
Who  shall  say  that  the  God  of  the  Christian  faith 
as  presented  to  us  concretely  in  Christ,  is  not 
abundantly  adequate  to  meet  all  these  require- 
ments, the  demands  of  our  rational  nature?  In 
all  the  respects  indicated  and  more,  Christianity 
meets  the  rational  test.     No  other  religion  does. 

Finally,  Christianity  is  essentially  self-eviden- 
cing. It  appeals  directly  to  the  common  instincts 
and  experiences  of  mankind.  It  carries  upon  its 
very  face  the  evidence  of  its  truthfulness. 

Christianity  alone,  of  all  the  religions  of  the 
world,  satisfactorily  meets  all  the  tests  which  a 
religion  claiming  to  be  final  must  confront. 

Ill 

Christianity  has  demonstrated  its  fitness  to  be 
universal,  its  adaptedness  to  all  races,  all  classes, 
all  degrees  of  culture,  and  this  through  the  ages. 

We  might  conceive  of  a  religion  suited  to  a  par- 
ticular race,  or  grade  of  development,  or  locality, 
but  not  to  all  races,  or  grades,  or  ages,  and  every- 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       S53 

where.  Such,  in  greater  or  less  degree  is  the  case 
with  the  various  non-Christian  religions,  and 
herein  are  their  limitations.  This  has  been  one 
of  the  barriers  between  the  races  and  nations, — 
the  fact  that  each  has  had  its  own  distinctive  reli- 
gion, with  more  or  less  fanatical  devotion  to  it 
and  intolerance  of  any  other.  But  a  religion  for 
the  world  must  be  fitted  for  universal  application, 
and  this  regardless  of  social  or  other  distinctions. 
And  precisely  such  has  the  Christian  religion 
proved  itself  to  be  historically.  It  has  shown  it- 
self to  be  entirely  at  home  and  to  thrive  in  every 
land  where  it  has  gained  a  foothold,  among  all 
peoples,  of  all  ages.  This  has  been  equally  true 
of  it  in  the  orient  and  the  Occident,  among  the  cul- 
tured nations  of  Europe  and  America,  among  the 
peoples  of  darkest  Africa  and  the  isles  of  the  sea ; 
with  the  most  learned  philosopher  and  the  most 
degraded  barbarian,  filling  the  cup  alike  of  the 
highest  and  the  lowest.  This  has  been  demon- 
strated through  the  centuries.  It  has  shown  itself 
to  be  readily  adjustable  to  all  possible  conditions. 
Especially  has  this  been  demonstrated  in  recent 
years  in  connection  with  missionary  operations  in 
all  quarters  of  the  earth  and  among  all  grades  of 
humanity.  Its  fitness  for  universality  has  been 
historically  demonstrated. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  has  there  been  no  progress 
in  religious  thought  or  knowledge  or  spiritual  light 
in  the  world  since  the  religion  of  Christ  was  given 


354     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

to  men?  Are  we  to  understand  that  progress  in 
the  religious  realm  came  to  an  end  at  that  time? 
By  no  means.  It  would  be  strange  indeed  that 
there  should  be  advance  in  all  other  realms  of  truth 
and  knowledge,  as  all  recognize,  but  that  every- 
thing should  be  stationary  here.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  a  fair  question  whether  any  absolutely  new 
religious  truth  has  really  been  added  to  the  deposit 
which  we  have  in  the  New  Testament,  as  proceed- 
ing from  Christ  and  the  interpretations  of  him  by 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Rather  may  not  any  seeming 
new  discovery  of  such  truth  have  been  the  result  of 
a  more  full  and  complete  apprehension,  or  a  more 
vivid  realization,  or  a  new  application,  or  a  further 
development  of  that  which  has  already  been  given? 
A  new  angle  of  observation  may  have  been  reached, 
or  new  experiences  may  have  called  out  some  new 
manifestation  of  it.  New  light  has  constantly 
been  breaking  forth  from  the  written  word  as  new 
crises  have  seemed  to  demand  it — why  not  as 
truly  through  the  quickening  and  illumining  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  Revealer?  And  as  it  has  been, 
so  no  doubt  it  will  continue  to  be,  yet  all  proceed- 
ing from  the  one  common  source,  the  Son  of  Right- 
eousness, with  limitless  stores  of  light  and  truth 
still  in  reserve  in  the  oracles  of  God,  to  be  disclosed 
as  the  demands  of  the  future  may  require.  So 
that  in  speaking  of  the  religion  of  Christ  as  abso- 
lute and  final,  we  do  not  mean  to  declare  or  to  im- 
ply that  revelation  has  been  closed,  or  that  man 
can  make  no  further  progress  in  religious  knowl- 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       355 

edge,  or  that  generations  to  come  can  learn  no 
more  of  God  than  is  already  known.  The  religion 
of  Christ  is  not  limited  in  its  resources.  It  may 
not  be  fully  apprehended  now,  but  we  may  be 
sure  that  in  the  future,  as  heretofore,  it  will  prove 
adequate  to  all  the  demands  which  may  legiti- 
mately be  made  upon  it.  Some  of  the  things  set 
forth  in  the  Bible  as  leading  to  it  or  as  springing 
from  it  may  have  been  simply  temporary  in  their 
character,  but  the  revelation  itself  of  Christ  was 
not  alone  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  it  was 
for  the  remotest  time  to  come  as  well.  It  was 
henceforth  to  have  a  permanent  place  as  an  actual 
experience  in  human  history,  and  to  be  an  essen- 
tial constituent  of  the  entire  future  life  of  hu- 
manity. 

We  have  now,  in  a  cursory  way,  reviewed  the 
subject  before  us.  We  have  taken  a  Hird's  eye 
glance  over  a  practically  limitless  field.  We  have 
seen  how  the  Christian  religion  makes  claims  to 
finality  and  to  universality,  how  it  anticipates, 
how  it  expects  this,  and  has  within  itself  a  po- 
tency adequate  to  the  realization  of  It ;  that  these 
great  claims  are  confirmed,  as  In  the  case  of  no 
other  religion,  by  its  ability  to  meet  the  pro- 
f oundest  needs  of  man  as  man ;  that  it  answers  all 
the  tests  which  would  be  demanded  of  a  religion 
putting  forth  stupendous  claims  of  this  character ; 
that  it  has  actually  demonstrated,  historically, 
its  fitness  for  universality,  especially  in  more  re- 


356    THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

cent  years  in  connection  with  missionary  opera- 
tions among  practically  all  the  races  and  nations 
of  the  earth.  It  has  shown  itself  to  be  as  truly 
fitted  for  one  age  as  for  another,  able  to  meet  all 
exigencies,  to  fit  itself  into  all  circumstances, 
capable  of  being  naturalized  in  all  lands. 

A  glance  at  the  world-wide  effects  of  Christian- 
ity tends  to  confirm  what  has  been  said.  Not 
only  has  it  wrought  marvelous,  seemingly  miracu- 
lous transformations  in  the  inner  life  and  in  the 
character  of  those  who  have  received  it — the 
most  beneficent  external  results  have  marked  its 
course  from  the  beginning.  The  lowest  tribes 
have  been  lifted  out  of  their  degradation.  Wom- 
an's condition  has  been  revolutionized.  Mighty 
evils,  like  slavery,  polygamy,  barbarity,  have  been 
done  away  with  by  its  power,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, or  are  in  process  of  being  overcome.  Edu- 
cation has  flourished  wherever  it  has  gone,  science 
has  made  its  greatest  triumphs,  civilization  is  at 
its  best.  Much  of  the  best  music  of  the  world, 
many  if  not  the  most  of  the  greatest  productions 
of  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  have  been 
the  outcome  of  Christianity.  False  religions 
have  been  overcome  by  it ;  the  great  religions,  so 
termed,  with  their  partial  truth  mingled  with 
much  evil  and  error,  are  gradually  yielding  before 
its  steady,  resistless  advance.  Barriers  between 
races  have  been  broken  down  by  it,  and  it  causes 
wars  to  cease  in  proportion  as  its  principles  hold 
sway.     In  spite  of  mighty  oppositions  and  seem- 


EMANCIPATED  CHRISTIANITY       357 

inglj  insuperable  obstacles,  it  has  gone  forward 
with  steadily  increasing  momentum.  Nothing  is 
more  inspiring  than  the  story  of  its  victories. 
Wherever  abuses  or  corruptions  have  crept  into 
it,  it  has  shown  itself  to  possess  a  self -purifying, 
self-rectifying  power.  In  it,  all  the  scattered 
and  fragmentary  ideas  and  hopes  and  longings 
of  the  nations  find  their  completion  and  fulfill- 
ment, and  in  it  we  have  a  common  meeting  ground 
for  all  nations  and  all  religions.  Take  from 
modern  life  and  civilization  all  the  Christian  ele- 
ments which  have  entered  into  them,  and  what 
would  there  be  left.? 

In  view  of  all  this,  may  we  not  with  full  confi- 
dence affirm  that  in  Christianity  we  have  the  ab- 
solute, universal,  final  religion  of  the  world, 
intended  to  be  such  by  God  himself — ultimately 
to  prevail  over  all  the  earth.  In  what  it  is  in  it- 
self and  in  what  it  has  done,  it  proclaims  its 
universal  character.  Only  such  a  religion  as  this 
would  have  warranted  the  wonderful,  world-wide, 
and  yet  minute  providential  preparation  which 
was  made  for  the  coming  of  Christ,  all  the  vari- 
ous lines  of  preparation  converging  upon  him, 
and  each  having  reached  its  climax.  It  was  the 
"fullness  of  time"  in  very  truth  for  the  advent  of 
the  world's  Redeemer,  and  for  the  giving  to  men 
of  the  final  religion. 

Such  a  review  should  help  mightily  to  confirm 
and  establish  our  faith  in  Christ,  the  world's 
Savior,  Exemplar,  and  Hope;  promote  restfulness 


358     THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  PERIOD 

and  peace  of  mind,  brighten  our  hopes,  and  lead 
to  a  more  complete  yielding  to  the  dominance  of 
his  spirit  in  our  lives.  Still  further,  if  this  re- 
ligion was  divinely  intended  for  all  mankind  as 
God's  final  and  complete  provision  for  its  spiritual 
wants,  as  we  have  abundant  reason  to  believe, 
then  it  is  the  rightful  inheritance  of  mankind. 
That  vast  multitudes  of  people  are  still  in  igno- 
rance of  it  does  not  alter  the  fact.  It  is  still  true 
that  it  is  mankind's  rightful  inheritance.  Then 
the  responsibility  would  seem  clearly  to  rest  upon 
those  who  have  themselves  entered  into  this  in- 
heritance and  experienced  its  blessings,  to  make 
it  known  the  world  over.  This  is  the  spirit  of 
this  religion,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Golden  Rule 
and  its  requirements  with  reference  to  those  less 
favored  than  ourselves.  Thus  we  may  assist  in 
ushering  in  the  glad  day  when  "all  shall  know  the 
Lord  from  the  least  to  the  greatest,"  at  home, 
abroad,  wherever  men  are  still  in  ignorance  of 
him,  and  his  kingdom  be  triumphant  over  all  the 
earth. 


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v"^ 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


i 


